MODULE 1 - PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF ENGLISH TEACHING
1.1
Linguistic principles, psycho-linguistic principles
1.2
Implications of theories related to language development- Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Constructivism, Critical Pedagogy, Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence
1.3
Chomskyan theory of language learning -Language Acquisition Device
(LAD), Universal Grammar (UG)
1.4
Learner factors in second language acquisition (age, gender,
intelligence, aptitude, attitude, cognitive style, motivation)
LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ENGLISH
The modern approach to all language learning and teaching is
based on sound linguistic principles.
Principle 1. Speech is Primary: The sounds should appear in proper expressions and
sentences spoken with the intonation and rhythm which would be used by a native
speaker.
Principle 2. Present Language in Basic Sentence
Patterns: Present, and have the
students memorise, basic sentence patterns used in day to day conversation.
From small utterances the students can easily pass on to longer sentences. Thus
the learners can expand the grasp of the language material in respect of sounds
and vocabulary items.
Principle 3. Language Patterns as Habits. : “To teach a language is to impart a new system of complex
habits, and habits are acquired slowly.” (R.Lado)
Real language ability is
at the habit level. It does not just mean knowing about the language. Make
language patterns as habit through intensive pattern practice in variety of
situations. The students must be taught to use language patterns and sentence
constructions with appropriate vocabulary at normal speed for communication
Principle 4. Imitation. Imitation is an important principle of language learning.
Good speech is the result of imitating good models. The model should be
intelligible.
Principle 5.Practice: Imitation followed by intensive practice helps in the mastery of
the language system.
Principle 6. Controlled Vocabulary. Vocabulary should be kept under control. Vocabulary should be
taught and practised only in the context of real situations,so that meaning will be clarified and reinforced.
Principle 7. Graded Patterns:Language patterns should be taught gradually, in cumulative
graded steps. This means, the teacher should go on adding each new element or
pattern to previous ones. New patterns of language should be introduced and
practised with vocabulary that students already know.
Principle 7. Selection and Gradation: Selection of the language material to be taught is the first
requisite of good teaching. Selection should be done in respect of grammatical
items and vocabulary and structures.
Selection of language items should involve:
1 frequency (how often a certain item or
word is used)
2.range (in
what different contexts a word or an item can be used)
3. coverage (how many different
meanings a word or an item can convey)
4.availability (how far an item is convenient to teach)
5.learnability (how far an item is easy to learn)
6.teachability (how far and item is easy to teach - in the
social context)
Gradation of the language material means placing the language items in an order. Grading
involves grouping and sequence. Grouping concerns
(i) the system of language, and (ii) its structures. Grouping the system of
language means what sounds, words, phrases and meanings are to be taught.
Thus we have:
(i) Phonetic grouping, i.e. grouping
according to sounds. For example, words having the same sound are placed in the
one group as, cat, bat, mat, pat, fat, sat; it, bit, fit, hit, kit,
it, etc.
(ii) Lexical grouping, i.e., grouping
according to lexical situations. Example:school, teacher,
headmaster, peon, class-room, library. All these words are grouped around
“school.”
(iii) Grammatical grouping, i.e., grouping
according to similar patterns as, my book/ his book, (pattern grouping): in the
room, in the corner/ in the class/in the garden, etc. (phrase grouping)
(iv) Semantic grouping, i.e., grouping
according to meaning. Example: school, college, university;
bicycle, rickshaw, car, tonga, train, aeroplane, etc,.
(v) Structure grouping, i.e., grouping in
the structures means how the selected items fit one into the other-the sounds
into the words, the words into phrases, the phrases into the clauses and
sentences, and the sentences into the context.
Sequence meants what comes after
what. Sequence should be there in thearrangement of sounds (phonetic
sequence), phrases (grammatical sequence) words (lexical sequence) and in
meaning (semantic sequence). Sequence of structures implies direction,
expansion, variation and length of the structures.
Principle 8. The Oral Way. Experts believe that the oral way is the surest way to language
learning. Prof. Kittson rightly observes,. “Learning to speak a language is
always the shortest road to learning to read and write it.” Prof Palmer also
writes,. “We should refrain from reading and writing any given
material until we have learnt to use its spoken form.”
Principle 9. Priorities of Language Skills: Listening (with understanding), speaking, reading and
writing are the four fundamental skills. Listening and speaking are
primary skills, while reading and
writing are secondary skills. Reading and writing are
reinforcement skills. They reinforce what has been learnt through understanding
and speaking. In fact, understanding and speaking speed up the reading process.
Writing should be introduced after reading.
Principle 10. Multiple Line of Approach: “The term multiple line implies that one is to proceed
simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the same end. We
should reject nothing except the useless material and should selected
judiciously and without prejudice all that is likely to help in our work”. In
teaching a language, it implies attacking the problem from all fronts. Say, for
example, there is a lesson on ‘Holidays’ in the text book. The teacher can have
a number of language activities connected with the topic such as oral drill,
reading, sentence writing, composition, grammar, translation, language
exercises etc.
Principle 11. Language Habit through Language Using: A language is best learnt through use in different contexts and
situations. Prof. Eugene A. Nida rightly observes, “Language learning means
plunging headlong into a series of completely different experiences. It means
exposing oneself to situations where the use of language is required.” Another
expert expresses a similar opinion by saying: “Learning a language means
forming new habits through intensive practice in tearing and speaking. The
emphasis should always be on language in actual use”.
Principle 12 Spiral Approach. The “spiral” approach to language learning should be followed.
Previously taught vocabulary and structures should be reintroduced in
subsequent units whenever logical or possible. This is “spiral approach.
Principle 13. Use Mother-tongue Sparingly. The mother-tongue should be sparingly and judiciously used
during teaching English. Of course, at the early stage, some explanations will
have to be given in pupil’s mother tongue. It is important that students do not
use their mother-tongue in the classroom.
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
OF TEACHING ENGLISH
It will not be out of place to list down certain principles
which have been derived from the science of psychology.
Principle 1. Motivation. Motivation is an important factor in language learning,
particularly in learning a second language. It creates interest as well as the
need to learn the language in hand. If the need for the language we use is
felt, it is learnt easily. Pupils’ interest can be aroused in a number of ways,
and language learning can be made increasingly interesting and attractive. It
can be done with the help of pictures, charts, models, flash cards, black board
sketches and similar other visual devices. The use of tape-recorder can be most
effective in the teaching of pronunciation. The aim is to have the students
maximally exposed to the target language in variety of contexts and situations,
not in isolation. The teacher should prompt connections, feed back and correct
errors, if any. The rule is teach, test, reteach, retest. The
teacher should make continual and significant use of language material in
class-room situations. Palmer suggests the following six factors which lead to
motivate and create interest among children:
(i) The limitation of bewilderment, that is,
minimum of confusion;
(ii) The sense of progress achieved;
(iii) Competitions;
(iv) Game-like exercises;
(v) The right relation between teacher and student; and
(vi) Variety.
Principle 2. Immediate Correction. Do make corrections. Corrections make all the difference. They
help in improving pupils’ responses. But remember, when corrections are made,
they should be made immediately. Moreover, the corrections should be made in
such a way as will bring about learning and not frustration or discouragement.
Principle 3. Reinforcement Immediate reinforcement is an important principle. It has been
experimentally proved that reinforcement of correct responses helps in better
learning. The student should be told his response is correct immediately after
it is given by him.
Principle 4. Frequent Review. An important psychological principle is the principle of
frequent review. Frequent review and re-entry of the same material is necessary
for retention. During the process of reviewing, variations in material should
be essentially be introduced and practised.
Principle 5. Correct Responses. It is an important psychological principle that classroom
activities should strengthen the language skills. The techniques used by the
teacher of English should encourage the maximum rate of correct responses. This
will give children the feeling of success, achievement and assured progress.
Principle 6. Practice in Everyday Situations. A language is best learnt when its need is felt in everyday situations.
So, English should be practised in every day situations with which children can
easily identify.
In short, the children, their environment and their experiences,
should be the starting point. Let them recall (and, they should be helped, if
they fail) something familiar which is related to or contrasts with a new
language item to be learnt.
These are, then, some of the basic principles of language
learning and teaching. These principles are in no way dictative: they are only
suggestive.
Remember then.
(i) Teach the language, not about the
language.
(ii) Teach the’ language, not its written
system (at the start).
(iii) Teach the language, as it is, not as any one
thinks it to be.
(iv) Teach the language, not its literature.
(v) Teach the language as it is now, not
in term of its history.
(vi) Teach the language as a skill, not as an
intellectual task.
(vii) Teach the language in varied, interesting
situations.
(viii) Give maximum exposure.
(ix) Give vocabulary its due place.
(x) Use mother-tongue as a tool, not a
medium.
(xi) Immediately reinforce correct response.
WHAT IS PSYCHO LINGUISTICS?
Psycho linguistics :
Psychology of language developed during
1960s.
Deals
with language acquisition process, language research, acoustic phonetics ,
language pathology , Physiological process like memory, attention, its
influence on linguistic behaviour., how knowledge of a language is represented
in the brain of a fluent speaker, language acquisition and utilization of the knowledge of the
language in production, and comprehension of expression.
Chomsky proposed
three corresponding models:1)Competence Model:
reflects
the speaker’s information level 2)A Performance Model:reflects the actual
processes for producing and understanding language. 3)Acquisition
Model:Reflects the changes in the competence and performance of a child during
the language acquisition period. Provides a model for the child’s language
learning achievement.
PSYCHOLINGUISTIC THEORIES
Psycholinguistic theories are important approaches of psychology to
language acquisition. Important schools are:1) Behaviouristic Approach. 2)Cognitive
Approach 3)Constructive Approach
4)Multiple Intelligence Theory.
2.2 IMPLICATIONS
OF THEORIES RELATED TO LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT- BEHAVIOURISM, COGNITIVISM,
CONSTRUCTIVISM, CRITICAL PEDAGOGY, GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
Cognitive
Approach
-Also known as ‘Gestalt School’., the
German word which means ‘whole’.
-Emphasis to subjective cognitive
experience of the learner.
Human learning as a result of both
nature and nurture.
Role of practice and corrective feed
back to reduce error correction.
Species specific nature of
language and The existence of
LAD(Language Acquisition Device’ proposed by Chomsky.
Role of reinforcement to motivate the
learner.
Suggests native language learner’s
developmental route for second language learning.
Communicative Approach is based on Cognitivism.
Constructivism owes to Cognitivism.
COGNITIVE
TEACHING
To design more effective learning
environments, cognitive scientists have been drawing on a wide array of
knowledge and experience, including: the work of 19th century and early 20th
century educators, analyses of apprenticeship learning and of the rapid
learning of young children, and cognitive research. In the research examining
the development of understanding in learners, many studies emphasize the
importance of building upon learners’ prior knowledge about a topic and of
learners’ active involvement in their learning. Cognitive
psychology says that the learner plays a critical role in determining what he
or she gets out of instruction. Educators
employing a cognitive approach to learning would view learning as internal
mental process (including insight, information processing, memory, perception)
where in order to develop learner capacity and skills to improve learning, the
educator structures content of learning activities to focus on building
intelligence and cognitive and meta-cognitive development.
What is Cognitive theory?
Cognitive
theory is a learning theory of
psychology that attempts to explain human behavior by understanding the thought
processes. The assumption is that humans are logical beings that make the
choices that make the most sense to them. Cognitive theories are focused
on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making,
thinking, and attention.
Cognitive
theories are appropriate to the school situation, for they are concerned with
knowing and thinking. They assume that perceiving and doing, shown in
manipulation and play, precede the capacity to symbolize, which in turn
prepares for comprehensive understanding. Although the sequence of motor-perceptual
experience followed by symbolic representation has been advocated for a long
time, Jean Piaget offered the first penetrating account of this kind of
intellectual growth. His views have exercised great influence on educators.
Cognitive
theories of learning also assume that the complete act of thought follows a
fairly common sequence, as follows: arousal of intellectual interest;
preliminary exploration of the problem; formulation of ideas, explanations, or
hypotheses; selection of appropriate ideas; and verification of their
suitability. In
cognitive teaching, importance is given to the cognitive development of
learners and different aspects of cognition. Cognition is the scientific term
for mental processes. It refers to information-processing abilities of humans,
including learning, perception, remembering, judging and problem-solving
(dictionary.com). The cognitive school starts with Gestalt theories like
Piaget, Bruner, Ausbel, Suchma etc. the ideas formulated in these lines by
these theorists have revolutionized the field of instruction.
GESTALT
THEORY
Being
dissatisfied with behaviouristic views and practices in learning and study of
behavior, the Gestalt theorists Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka started a new
approach. The gestalt psychologists believe that whole is more important than
parts. So learning also should involve understanding situations and experiences
as a whole.
Educational Implications of Gestalt Theory
·
From
whole to parts
·
Integrated
approach
·
Emphasis
on understanding
·
Problem
solving approach
PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
It is also much influenced
by the developmental psychology of Piaget focusing on the maturational factors
affecting understanding. The accommodation / assimilation and intellectual
equilibrium/ disequilibrium dialectic is the part most useful for understanding
grown learners.
Role of Teacher
•
Present
problematic situation appropriate to the developmental status- of the learner
as a challenge to the learner and create in him cognitive disequilibrium.
Motivation to operate should arouse as a result.
•
Present
learning experiences geared towards identifying related schemas in the existing
cognitive structure and make the learners reverse those schemas.
•
Help
the learner to establish links between the related schemas by different
strategies. Motivate and enable the learner to shuttle the old and new schemas
till the appropriate relation is established and assimilation happens.
•
Help
the learner accommodate by properly integrating the new schemas at the
appropriate regions of the cognitive structure.
Ø The Cognitive
Development Model
of Teaching is developed on the basis of Piagetian approach.
BRUNER'S COGNITIVE ASSUMPTIONS
Bruner is the proponent of Discovery Learning. According to Bruner the
process of learning is more important than the mere material learnt. He also
held that to cope up with the explosion of knowledge every learner should know
how to learn. In order to realize this, Bruner has suggested certain strategies
to be followed by teachers.
Role of Teacher
•
Make
use of the most wonderful gift given to human being by nature, namely curiosity
as the dynamic force leading to discovery.
•
Grade
the curricular material to provide learning experiences formulated by him as
enactive, lkonic and symbolic to suit the development status of the learner
•
Inorder
to ensure proper cognitive development gradual increase in the level of
abstraction of experiences should be ensured
•
There
should be constant and systematic interaction between the teacher and the
learner so that the latter can discover scientifically and precisely
Ø The Concept Attainment Model of teaching is developed on the basis of
Brunerian approach
SUCHMAN’S THEORY OF LEARNING
Based on
the cognitive assumption of discovery learning, Suchman has developed an
instructional strategy which is often called Inquiry Training. He argues that by presenting puzzling
situations and by arousing curiosity, children could be made to arrive at
solutions for the puzzle. His theory is
based on four principles:
v People
inquire naturally when they are puzzled
v They
can become conscious of and learn to analyse their thinking strategies
v New
strategies can be taught directly and added to
the existing ones
v Co-operative
inquiry enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative, emergent nature of
knowledge and to appreciate alternative explanations.
Role of teacher
On the basis of these principles, a teacher has to take care
of providing inquiry strategies to explore puzzling situations and help the
learners to arrive at feasible solutions.
INTRODUCTION TO BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
With
Blooms Taxonomy cognitive domain also gained in important in the planning of
educational objectives bloom’s taxonomy was created by Benjamin Bloom during
the 1950s and is a way to categorize the levels of reasoning skills required in
classroom situations.
The original
handbook in 1956 was intended only to focus on one of the three domains (as
indicated in the domain specification in title: The Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: Handbook `1: Cognitive Domain) but there was expectations that
additional material would be generated for the other domain (as indicated in
the numbering of the handbook in the title)
COGNITIVE LEARNING
There are six levels in the taxonomy, each requiring a
higher level of abstraction from the students.
Knowledge: Exhibit memory of previously learned
materials by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers.
In this level, questions are asked solely to test whether a
student’s has gained specific information from the lesson. For example, have they memorized the dates
for a particular war or do they know the presidents that served during specific
eras of American History. It also
includes knowledge of the main ideas that are being taught. We are writing knowledge questions when we
use words like tell, list, label, name etc
Comprehension: Demonstrative understanding of facts and ideas
by organizing comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and
stating main ideas. This level of Blooms
taxonomy has students go past simply recalling facts and instead has them
understanding the information. With this
level, they will be able to interpret the facts. Instead of simply being able
to name the various types of clouds, for examples, the students would be able
to understand why each cloud formed in that manner. We are probably writing comprehension
questions when we use words like describe, contract, discuss, predict etc.
Application: Using new knowledge. Solve problems to new situations by applying
acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different ways. Applications questions are those where
students have to actually apply, or use, the knowledge they have learned. They might be asked to solve a problem with
the information they have gained in class solve a legal questions in an
American government class using the constitution and its amendments. We are problem writing application questions
when we use words like complete, solve, examine, illustrate, show etc.
Analysis: Examine and break information into parts
by identifying motives or causes. Make
inferences and find evidence to support generalizations. In this level, student
will be required to go beyond knowledge and application and actually see
patterns that they can use to analyze a problem. For example, an English teacher might ask
what the motives were behind the protagonist’s actions during a novel. This requires students to analyse the
character and come to a conclusion based on this analysis. We are probably
writing analysising questions when we use words like analyse, explain,
investigate, infer etc.
Synthesis: Compile information together in
a different way by combining elements a new pattern or proposing alternative
solutions. With synthesis, students are
required to use the given facts to create new theories or make
predictions. They might have to pull to
knowledge from multiple subjects and synthesis this information before coming
to a conclusion. For example, if a
student is asked to invent a new product or game they are being asked to synthesis. We are probably writing synthesis questions
when we use words like invent, imagine, create compose etc.
Evaluation: Present and defend opinions by making judgments about information,
validity and ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria the top of
bloom’s taxonomy is evaluation. Here
students are expected to assess information and come to conclusions such as its
value or the bias behind it. For
example, if a student is completing a DBQ (Document Based System) for an AP US
History course, they are expected to evaluate the bias behind any primary or
secondary sources in order to see how that affects the points that the speaker
is making. We are probably writing
evaluation question when we use words like select, judge, debate, recommended
etc.
A teacher has to take care to include
educational objectives belonging to cognitive domain while planning for
instruction and make sure these objectives were being materialized in the
classroom.
Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory:
Cognitive
learning theory has provided the framework for guiding instruction for more
than half a century, and during that time we have learned a great deal about
learning and people’s thinking . Cognitive theory is grounded on the following
principles:
Ø Learning
and development depend on learner’s experiences.
Ø People
want their experiences to make sense.
Ø People
construct knowledge in order to make sense of their experiences.
Ø The
knowledge learners construct depends on their prior knowledge and experiences.
Ø Social
interaction and the use of language facilitate knowledge construction.
Ø Learning
requires practise and feedback
Ø Learning
is enhanced when learning experiences are connected to the real world.
Using Cognitive Theories to Improve Teaching
"Learners
are not simply passive recipients of information; they actively construct their
own understanding." Marilia Svinicki then draws six principles from
cognitive theory that operationally define this perspective, with implications
for applying the principles.
Principle 1. If information is to be learned, it must first
be recognized as important. The more attention effectively directed
toward what is to be learned, the higher the probability of learning. This
begins simply: instructors write key ideas on the board; textbooks highlight
the most important points. It becomes more complicated as students within a
given major must learn how a discipline determines what is important. They can
do that more readily if instructors make those determinations explicit.
Principle 2. During learning, learners act on information in
ways that make it more meaningful. Instructor and students
should use examples, images, elaborations, and connections to prior knowledge
to make information more meaningful, to bridge from what is known to what is
unknown. This makes it very important for instructors to know what kinds of
knowledge and experiences students bring to the new learning situation.
Principle 3. Learners store information in long-term memory
in an organized fashion related to their existing understanding of the world. The
instructor can help students organize new information by providing an
organizational structure, particularly one with which students are familiar, or
by encouraging students to create such structures; in fact, students learn best
under the latter condition. Without instructor guidance, students either impose
their own structure-- most generally a structure that reflects an uninformed
view things (and often leads to misconceptions)-- or memorize the material minus
any structure, which leads to fast forgetting.
Principle 4. Learners continually check understanding, which
results in refinement and revision of what is retained.
Opportunities for checking and diagnosis aid learning. Principle 5. Transfer of learning to new contexts is not automatic, but
results form exposure to multiple applications. During learning, provision
must be made for later transfer. The more (and the more different) situations
in which students see a concept applied, the better they will be able to use
what they have learned in the future. It will no longer be tied to a single
context.
Principle 6. Learning is facilitated when learners are aware
of their learning strategies and monitor their use. The
instructor should help students learn how to translate these strategies into
action at appropriate points in their learning. In other words, the application
of cognitive theory implies a responsibility to teach both content and process.
Students need to learn how to learn just as much as they need to learn things.
Cognitivist teaching
methods:
Teaching
based on cognitive theories of learning recognizes, first, the growth in
quality of intellectual activity and capitalizes on this knowledge by
organizing instruction to anticipate the next stage in development but does not
await it; otherwise there would be no instruction; i.e., instruction
should pace development but not outstrip it. Second, it seeks to tune the
learning situation to the sequences of the complete act of thought and to
arrange, simplify, and organize the subject matter accordingly. Some educators
emphasize strongly the arousal phase; in many modern science curricula there
is, thus, the idea of inquiry training, which tries to arouse in the child a
spontaneous rather than a directed interest. Other educators are concerned more
with the middle intellectual phases of the thinking sequence—especially the
playing with hypotheses or hunches and the working with organizing ideas and
concepts.
Cognitivist
teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to
existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to
their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. Thus,
while cognitivists allow for the use of “skill and drill” exercises in the
memorization of facts, formulae, and lists, they place greater importance on
strategies that help students to actively assimilate and accommodate new
material. For instance, asking students to explain new material in their own
words can assist them in assimilating it by forcing them to re-express the new
ideas in their existing vocabulary. Likewise, providing students with sets of
questions to structure their reading makes it easier for them to relate it to
previous material by highlighting certain parts and to accommodate the new
material by providing a clear organizational structure.
Because
learning is largely self-motivated in the cognitivist framework, cognitivists
such as A. L. Brown and J. D. Ferrara have also suggested methods which require
students to monitor their own learning. For instance, the use of ungraded tests
and study questions enables students to monitor their own understanding of the
material. Other methods that have been suggested include the use of learning
journals by students to monitor progress and highlight any recurring
difficulties, and to analyze study habits.
Cognitive teaching
models: In the section
below, we briefly review several instructional systems developed by cognitive
psychologists.
Anderson's
Intelligent Tutors
John Anderson accounts for cognitive performance through the
ACT* model of information processing ( Anderson, 1990). According to this
model, declarative knowledge is compiled into procedural skill through repeated
practice performing a task. Whereas a novice must keep a procedure's steps in
mind while performing, an expert turns several steps into an integrated
routine, similar to the way subroutines work together in computer programming.
Once knowledge is compiled from declarative to procedural knowledge, it may be
performed with a minimum of allocated conscious attention.
Instruction based on the ACT* model would therefore emphasize
guiding the learner through repeated practice opportunities to proceduralize
the skills of the curriculum. Based on a cognitive analysis of the task, a
model of the ideal student performance is developed for varying stages of
competence, including assorted "buggy" procedures. As instruction
proceeds, the system fits the learner's response pattern to its performance
model, selects problems to minimize errors and optimize learning, and provides
feedback and remediation accordingly. The technique of comparing learners'
performance with a preexisting performance model is termed model tracing.
The program does not make available the model's production rules to students
directly; rather, the production rules trigger various instructional events,
most notably intervention and feedback following incorrect performance. Because
new knowledge is best learned in the context of solving relevant problems,
instruction is centered around problem-solving practice.
Clancey's
Intelligent Tutoring Environments
Clancey's (1986) program GUIDON and its descendents use
heuristic classification methods as the basis for an intelligent tutoring
environment for medical diagnosis. The program differs from ACT* model
prescriptions in several ways. First, it assumes that the learner has a basic
understanding of terms, concepts and disease processes. Second, it assumes that
learning is more efficient if the student determines what he/she needs to know
next without being explicitly controlled by the system. Third, and most
significantly, it is failure driven; that is, primary instruction occurs in the
form of feedback to student errors.
GUIDON requires the student to make a diagnosis, then to
justify it with reasons. When the student's diagnosis "fails," he/she
must take steps to correct the reasoning that led to it. Thus while the student
develops expertise in medical diagnosis in a realistic problem-solving context,
he/she also learns to detect and correct buggy procedures and misconceptions.
The program is nearly completely learner-controlled; at any point, the student
can choose to browse through the expert taxonomies and tables, examine the
expert's reasoning during problem solving, ask questions, or request
explanations. But ultimately the student must generate the appropriate links in
a solution graph for each case.
Qualitative Mental Models
White and Frederiksen's (1986) program to teach
troubleshooting in electrical circuits emphasizes the relationship between
qualitative models and causal explanations. White and Frederiksen believe that
mastery of qualitative reasoning should precede quantitative reasoning. Their
program builds on students' intuitive understandings of the domain, carefully
sequencing "real-world" problems that require the student to
construct increasingly complex qualitative models of the domain. Although the
program encourages students to engage in diverse learning strategies
(exploring, requesting explanations, viewing tutorial demonstrations or problem
solving), it tries to minimize errors.
Reciprocal Teaching
Brown and Palincsar (1989; Palincsar & Brown, 1984) have
developed a cooperative learning system for the teaching of reading,
termed reciprocal teaching. The teacher and learners assemble in groups of
2 to 7 and read a paragraph together silently. A person assumes the
"teacher" role and formulates a question on the paragraph. This
question is addressed by the group, whose members are playing roles
of producer and critic simultaneously. The
"teacher" advances a summary, and makes a prediction or
clarification, if any is needed. The role of teacher then rotates, and the
group proceeds to the next paragraph in the text. Brown and colleagues have
also developed a method of assessment, called dynamic assessment, based on
successively increasing prompts on a realistic reading task. The reciprocal
teaching method uses a combination of modeling, coaching, scaffolding, and
fading to achieve impressive results, with learners showing dramatic gains in
comprehension, retention, and far transfer over sustained periods.
Procedural Facilitations for
Writing
Novices typically employ
a knowledge-telling strategy when they write: They think about their
topic, then write their thought down; think again, then write the next thought
down, and so on until they have exhausted their thoughts about the topic. This
strategy, of course, is in conflict with a more constructive, planning approach
in which writing pieces are composed in a more coherent, intentional way. To
encourage students to adopt more sophisticated writing strategies, Scardamalia
and Bereiter (1985) have developed a set of writing prompts
called procedural facilitations, that are designed to reduce
working-memory demands and provide a structure for completing writing plans and
revisions. Their system includes a set of cue cards for different purposes of
writing, structured under five headings: new idea (e.g. "An even
better idea is..."; "An important point I haven't considered yet
is..."), improve ("I could make my point
clearer..."), elaborate ("An example of this...";
"A good point on the other side of the argument
is..."), goals ("My purpose..."), and putting it
together ("I can tie this together by..."). Each prompt is
written on a notecard and drawn by learners working in small groups. The
teacher makes use of two
techniques, soloing and co-investigation. Soloing gives learners
the opportunity to try out new procedures by themselves, then return to the
group for critique and suggestions. Co-investigation is a process of using
think-aloud protocols that allow learner and teacher to work together on
writing activities. This allows for more direct modeling and immediate direction.
Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) have found up to tenfold gains in learning
indicators with nearly every learner improving his/her writing through the
intervention.
Schoenfeld's Math Teaching
Schoenfeld (1985) studied methods for teaching math to
college students. He developed a set of heuristics that were helpful in solving
math problems. His method introduces those heuristics, as well as a set of
control strategies and a productive personal belief system about math, to
students. Like the writing and reading systems, Schoenfeld's system includes
explicit modeling of problem-solving strategies, and a series of structured
exercises affording learner practice in large and small groups, as well as
individually. He employs a tactic he calls "postmortem analysis,"
retracing the solution of recent problems, abstracting out the generalizable
strategies and components. Unlike the writing and reading systems, Schoenfeld
carefully selects and sequences practice cases to move learners into higher
levels of skill. Another interesting technique is the equivalent to "stump
the teacher," with time at the beginning of each class period devoted to
learner-generated problems that the teacher is challenged to solve. Learners
witnessing occasional false starts and dead ends of the teacher's solution can
acquire a more appropriate belief structure about the nature of expert math
problem solving. Schoenfeld's positive research findings support a growing body
of math research suggesting the importance of acquiring a conceptual or
schema-based representation of math problem solving.
Anchored Instruction
John Bransford and colleagues at Vanderbilt University have
developed several instructional products using video settings. Young
Sherlock Holmes or Indiana Jones may provide macro
contexts within which problems of various kinds may be addressed. For
example, when Indiana Jones quickly replaces a bag of sand in place of the gold
idol, the booby trap is tricked into thinking the idol is still there. This
scene opens up questions of mass and density: If the idol were solid gold, how
big must a sand bag be to weigh the same, and could Indy have escaped as
he did carrying a solid-gold idol of that size? Based on a single macrocontext,
learners may approach a variety of problems that draw on science, math,
language, and history. Bransford and colleagues have applied the
name anchored instruction to this approach of grounding instruction
in information-rich situations, and have reported favorable findings in field-based
and laboratory studies (The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt,
1990). Recently, several videodisc-based macro contexts called the Jasper
Series have been developed as a basis for research and classroom instruction
(The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, in press; Sherwood and The
Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1991; Van Haneghan et al., in
press).
Cognitive Flexibility
Hypertexts
Spiro and colleagues (Spiro & Jehng, 1990) have developed
hypertext programs to address problems typically associated with acquiring
knowledge in complex, ill-structured domains. The programs utilize videodiscs
that construct multiple "texts" (audio/video mini-cases, about 90
seconds each) of a domain.. Spiro's programs are best thought of as
"rich" environments that allow sophisticated learners to pursue their
learning goals in a flexible way. They do not typically include skill practice
in a traditional sense, but instead rely on learner purposes and externally
imposed assignments to give meaning to student browsing. There is an authoring
shell, however, built into the system for teachers or students to use.
Students, for example, may construct a series of mini-cases into a "visual
essay" illustrating a theme not present on the Theme menu.
Spiro and Jehng emphasize that this instructional approach is
difficult-it places great metacognitive demands on learners-but it addresses
goals which are often overlooked in instruction precisely because they are
difficult.
Expert Systems.
Lippert (1988, 1990) describes the way in which an expert
system shell can be used as both an instructional and a learning strategy to
"facilitate the acquisition of procedural knowledge and problem-solving
skills in difficult topics" (1988, p. 22). Again, students learn by
designing-developing an expert system individually or in groups, on their own
or under the guidance of a teacher. According to Lippert, the strategy can be
used with students as young as grade 6 and in any domain whose knowledge base
can be expressed in productions.
Like the Harel and Papert approach, developing an expert
system forces students to construct a meaningful representation of the domain.
Most expert systems are systems which reduce a content domain to a set of
IF-THEN rules. According to Lippert's scheme, the knowledge base is the key
component and includes four parts: decisions which define the domain; questions
which extract information (answers) from the user; rules that relate the
answers to the decisions; and explanations (of questions or rules), which
require the developer to understand the relationships among the various
elements of the domain-the learner must understand "why" and
"when," not merely "what." The developer constructs the
knowledge base which the system then evaluates; if the system finds
inconsistencies or redundancies, the developer must revise the knowledge base.
In doing so, the learner must be reflective and articulate his or her implicit
knowledge. Developing such a system helps students confront their
misconceptions of the content.
Conclusion
Cognition refers to mental activity including thinking,
remembering, learning and using language. When we apply a cognitive approach to
learning and teaching, we focus on the understanding of information and
concepts. If we are able to understand the connections between concepts, break
down information and rebuild with logical connections, then our retention of
material and understanding will increase.
When we are aware of these mental actions, monitor them and
control our learning processes it is called meta-cognition, which varies
from situation to situation, will greatly effect how individuals behave in a
given situation. Understanding of language, or psycholinguistics, is
essential to our understanding of print and oral acquisition of knowledge. Comprehension and perception will allow
individuals to interpret information. Lastly, the
overall motivation of the learner will determine how effectively the
information is retained or processed.
According to Kate Mc Gilly (1996), students are not learning
to their full potential due to the fact that more often than not, they use rote
memory procedures in the classroom. With the increased competition in the work
force and jobs becoming more demanding, students need to be more prepared for
higher learning and the job market with skills that evolve from cognitive
theory. These skills, including study skills, social skills, problem solving,
and organizational skills to name a few, should be taught and integrated across
the curriculum.
What is meant by constructivism?
of recent development. Most reputed expounders are: Jean Piaget,
Jerome S Bruner, Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, Noam Chomsky, Donaldson and Skemp.
The term
refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge for themselves---each
learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning---as he or she
learns. Constructing meaning is
learning;
1)
we have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the
subject/lesson to be taught):
2)
There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience
(constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.
CHARACTERISTICS
1) Paradigm shift in the roles: Education is learner centered. Teacher
is only a guide and facilitator a prompter behind the curtain. Learner
constructs knowledge, instead of delivered or spoon-fed as a product.
2) Learning Process : Learner actively constructs knowledge
himself based on the prior knowledge and experience. ‘Construct Knowledge’
means ‘recreate knowledge.’ Learner interacts with content, teacher, peers, and
environment in the learning process. The immanent potentialities of the humans are infinite but they use
infitesimally small amount of it.
Principles
of learning
Guiding principles of constructivist thinking relevant to the educators
1.
Learning involves the active ‘learners ‘(Dewey) engaging with the world:. Learning is an
active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning
out of it. The learner needs to do
something. Learning is not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists
"out there" but that
2.
People learn to learn as they learn:
learning consists both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of
meaning. Each meaning we construct makes
us better able to give meaning to other sensations which can fit a similar
pattern.
3.
The crucial action of constructing
meaning is mental: It happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on
experience may be necessary for learning, especially for children, but it is
not sufficient; we need to provide activities which engage the mind as well as
the hands. (Dewey called this reflective activity.)
4. Learning involves language: The
language we use influences learning. On
the empirical level. Researchers have noted that people talk to
themselves as they learn. As Vigotsky says that language and learning are inextricably
intertwined.
5. Learning
is a social activity: our learning is intimately associated with our
connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well
as casual acquaintances, including the people before us or next to us at the
exhibit. We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to educate if we
recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it.‘ Progressive education’
(Dewey) recognizes the social aspect of learning and uses conversation,
interaction with others, and the application of knowledge as an integral aspect
of learning.
6. Learning
is contextual: we do not learn isolated facts and theories in some abstract
ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of our lives: we learn in
relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our
fears. On reflection, it becomes clear
that this point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and
social. We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.
7. One
needs knowledge to learn: it is not possible to assimilate new knowledge
without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on.
The more we know, the more we can learn. Therefore any effort to teach must be
connected to the state of the learner, must provide a path into the subject for
the learner based on that learner's previous knowledge.
8. It takes time to learn: learning is not instantaneous. For
significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play
with them and use them. If you reflect on anything you have learned, you soon
realize that it is the product of repeated exposure and thought. Even, or
especially, moments of profound insight, can be traced back to longer periods
of preparation.
9.
Motivation is a key component in
learning. Not only is it the case that motivation helps learning, it is
essential for learning. This ideas of motivation is broadly conceived to
include an understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless we
know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved in using the
knowledge that may be instilled in us
even by the most severe and direct teaching.
FUNDAMENTALS
OF SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM
types:1)Cognitive Constructivism 2) Social
Constructivism. They are complementary to each other.
Cognitive
Constructivism
Propounded
by Jean Piaget
Principles
Piaget
identified a kind of cognitive scaffold called ‘schema’ for organising
knowledge. ‘Assimilation’ and ‘Accommodation’
are two related processes in
Assimilation:
The process of linking of the unfamiliar schema with familiar schema already
existed in the cognitive structure. Thus unfamiliar schema is made familiar.
The
assimilated schemas are given a most suitable place in the cognitive structure
to become a part of that entity.
Accommodation:
The process of incorporating new knowledge by modifying the existing cognitive
structure of the organism.
Both
maturation and experience (nature and nurture) play significant role in building knowledge.
SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Social Constructivism was propounded by LS Vygotsky.
Principles
Creation of knowledge takes place in the social environment of student. Knowledge is
acquired through active collaborative processes.
Learning occurs through social interaction and
debates. Not only the child’s biological aspects but his social relations,
civilization, history etc. make him grow intellectually. Learning
flourishes in a social environment where conversation between learners takes
place.
The learners are challenged both socially and
emotionally as they listen to different perspectives, and are required to articulate
and defend their ideas. Learners create their own unique conceptual frameworks
and not rely solely on an expert's or a text's framework. The approach is closely related to
co-operative learning and Collaborative learning Activities.
Collaborative
learning commonly illustrated when groups of students work
together to search for understanding meaning, or solutions or to create an
artifact or product of their learning. Collaborative Collaborative
learning Activities include:
collaborative writing , group projects,
joint problem solving, debates, study teams and other activities.
Characteristics of collaborative Learning:
Aspects of Collaborative Learning : (i) Cross-age tutoring (ii) Peer-tutoring (ii) Mentoring
Other aspects :
1) flexible
class management
2) heterogeneous
grouping.
3) teacher
acts as a facilitator.
4) teacher
helps the learner how to learn.
5) emphasis
on interaction, self-evaluation and peer-evaluation.
6) acknowledgment
of the innate talents of the learner.
Teaching
Techniques: Group work, Workshops, Group Discussion, Role
playing, Dramatization.
3.CRITICAL PEDAGOGY
Educational
Implications of Critical Pedagogy
Critical Pedagogy is
a valuable approach in planning teaching - learning experiences.It
provides an opportunity to reflect critically on issues in terms of their
political, social, economic and moral aspects. It entail the acceptance of
multiple views on social issues and a commitment to democratic forms of
interaction. Important in view of the
multiple contexts in which our schools function. A critical framework helps
children to see social issues from different perspectives and understand how
such issues are connected to their lives
For instance, understanding of democracy as a way of life
can be chartered through a path where children reflect on how they regard
others. friends, neighbours, opposite sex, elders etc.), how they make choices
(eg: activities, play, friends, career etc.) and how they cultivate the ability
to make decisions
Issues related to human rights, caste, religion and gender
can be critically reflected on by children in order to see how these issues are
connected to their everyday experiences, and also how different forms of
inequalities become compounded and are perpetuated. Critical pedagogy
facilitates collective decision making through open discussion and by
recognizing multiple views. It helps the learners to relate the underlying
social issues of the content to their day to day life. It also helps to make choices in varied situations
and to develop the ability for good decision making.
Issue Domains
- Lack
of scientific land-Water Management
- Issues
related to agriculture
- Lack
of cohesive universal vision (viswamanavan)
- Lack
of human resource development
- Lack
of cultural consciousness
- The
issues of the marginalised
- Lack
of eco-friendly industrialisation and urbanisation
- Issues
related to health and public health
Critical
Pedagogy-Features of a learning material
Based on social issues
Based on child’s experiences
Opportunity for democratic forms of interaction
Opportunity to reflect critically on social issues and on
opinion of others
Promote readiness to correct
Opportunity for collective decision making
Entails multiple views
Chances for self-evaluation and peer evaluation
Develops social feelings
Develops self concept
A Summary of the Work
of Paulo Freire & His Contemporaries
Paulo Freire - Background
Freire was born in Recife, Brazil. He was born into a middle
class household. His family was impacted by the Great Depression. Freire
soon knew what it was like to go hungry.
(Stevens, 2002)
Characteristics of the Great Depression
We have studied the Great Depression at length this year.
Jot down some social & economic repercussions of the Great
Depression(misery) across the globe. How do the points you’ve indicated tie
into Freire’s “hunger” both literally and metaphorically?
Paulo Freire on his Poverty
Freire stated that poverty and hunger severely affected his
ability to learn. This influenced his decision to dedicate his life to
improving the lives of the poor: “I didn't understand anything because of my
hunger. I wasn't dumb. It wasn't lack of interest. My social condition didn't
allow me to have an education. Experience showed me once again the relationship
between social class and knowledge"
(Freire). (Stevens, 2002)
Freire’s Career
Freire's financial situation eventually improved. He
enrolled at the University of Recife, where he earned a law degree. He soon left the legal profession choosing to
teach Portuguese in Brazil’s high schools.
He later switched from teaching high school to a career in adult
education. (Stevens, 2002) Freire completed his PhD and worked in several university and
government agencies in Brazil throughout the 1960s. He worked towards bringing
literacy programs to Brazil’s poor. In April of 1964, a military coup
(revolution) brought all progressive movements in Brazil to a halt(stop) or
(arrest). Freire was imprisoned for 70
days and then exiled for his "subversive"(rebellious) activities.
(Stevens, 2002)
Jailed for being Progressive?
We’ve studied many people throughout the course of the year
who were jailed for being progressive; for wanting change in their societies.
Write down the names of a few people who were incarcerated for being
“subversive”. What connections can you make about being progressive (i.e.
wanting change) and governmental status quo? Why do governments feel the need
to silence people who want change?
Freire’s Career (Cont’d)
In 1968 Freire published his most famous book, Pedagogy
of the Oppressed, where he outlined the characteristics of what he called Critical
Pedagogy. Critical Pedagogy called for people living under conditions of
oppression to develop a new foundation for learning. (Stevens, 2002)
What is Oppression?
We use this word a great deal in our study of 20th
Century history. What does oppression really mean? Write down your own definition. Research
definitions of oppression on the Internet.
How do these definitions compare or contrast with your own? Name groups
of people whom we have studied that you feel were oppressed? What oppressed
these people? Who oppressed them?
Critical Pedagogy
Critical Pedagogy was embraced by the academic community and
university scholars. There has been a lot written about critical pedagogy since
Freire’s first text.
Important names in the field include: Kincheloe ,Macedo ,
Wexler , McLaren, Shor , Darder , Giroux and hooks (Kincheloe, 2007) (Duncan-Andrade & Morrell, 2008)
What is Critical Pedagogy?
Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach which attempts
to help students question and challenge domination, and the beliefs and
practices that dominate them. It tries
to help students become critically conscious. (Wikpedia, 2008)
How to be
Critically Conscious?
According
to Ira Shor (1992) a student can be critically conscious by: Thinking, reading,
writing, and speaking while going beneath the surface meaning. A student must
go beyond: Myths, clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions.
Most
importantly students must understand the deep meaning, root causes, social
context,and personal consequences of:any action, event, object, process,
organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or
discourse. (Shor, 1992)
Characteristics
of Critical Pedagogy
The
following is a list of the goals and methods that critical pedagogy tries to
bring to education.
The
objective of this pedagogy (method of education) is to empower students and
help them help themselves. The aim is to liberate students from oppression.
CLASS EXAMPLE 1. Anti-Colonial Education
Native populations need to have their own education systems.
They need to develop their own culture. Their education should not simply be an
extension of the culture of their colonizer.
(Freire, 1968)
CLASS EXAMPLE: 2. The Role of Indigenous Knowledge
The knowledge of indigenous and subjugated peoples (people
forced to submit to the will of another group) is very important.When oppressed
people learn about their own culture, history, medicinal practices, religion,
heritage, etc., this can have a transformative effect on their lives and lead
to their own empowerment. Indigenous knowledge is equally important for people
in the West who have ignored it in favour of Western knowledge.There is much to
be learnt from the knowledge of indigenous peoples across the globe.(Kincheloe,
2007)
CLASS EXAMPLE 3. Identifying Sources of Power
Students must be able to analyze competing power interests
between groups and individuals within a society.They must be able to identify
who gains and who loses in specific situations. They must be made aware that
privileged groups often have an interest in supporting the status quo to
protect their advantages. (Kincheloe,
2007)
CLASS EXAMPLE 4. Political Nature of Education
All education is political.Teachers and students must be
made aware of the “politics” that surround education.The way students are
taught and what they are taught serves a political agenda.Teachers, themselves,
have political notions, they bring into the classroom. (Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE: 5. Understanding the Politics of
Knowledge
Students must understand that knowledge itself is
political.Understanding the “power” of knowlegde is crucial. Many educational
instiutions use their “power” to keep the privileged on top and the
underprivileged on the bottom.What we learn in schools/universities is usually
“validated" scientific knowledge. The problem? Often the people who produced this
“scientific” knowledge are the people in positions of power who dominate over
oppressed peoples! How much of the knowledge thay you have learnt in school is
Western and written by dead, white males? (Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE 6. Justice & Equality in Education
A social and educational vision of justice and equality
should be the basis of all education (Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE: 7. The Rejection of Economic Determinism
Critical Pedagogy understands that economic factors alone do
not predetermine who has power and who does not.Students must be made to
realize that people are also oppressed because of issues of: race, class,
gender, sexuality, religion, and physical ability (Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE 8. Goal of Schooling is to Lessen Human
Suffering
The alleviation of oppression and human suffering is a key
aspect of the purpose of education
(Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE: 9. End of “Banking System” of Education
Students should not be viewed as an empty “account” to be
filled in by the teacher. Teachers should know that students have life experiences
and their own knowledge that is key in shaping their education and learning.
Good schools do not blame students for their failures or strip students of the
knowledges they bring to the classroom.(Freire, 1968) (Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE:10. Change in
Relationship between Student and Teacher
A deep respect should exist between teacher and student. We
should think in terms of teacher-student and student-teacher - that is: a
teacher who learns and a learner who
teaches. (Freire, 1968)
CLASS EXAMPLE: 11. Teachers as Researchers
The professionalism of teachers must be respected.Part of
the role of any educator involves becoming a scholar and a researcher.It is
vital to know your students; i.e. their culture, knowledge base, language, etc.
Teachers must become “warrior intellectuals”, people who know their students
and their backgrounds and who are willing to fight for them .(Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE b 12.
Education Must Promote Emancipation & Intellectual Growth
Education must both promote freedom (emancipation) and the
changes that come with it.Education must also allow knowledge, reasoning and
understanding (i.e. intellect) to grow.These two goals should never be in
conflict, they should always be in sync.Those who seek freedom (emancipation)
attempt to gain the power to control their own lives in unity with a community
that seeks justice.Critical pedagogy’s role is to expose the forces that
prevent individuals and groups from making the decisions that will affect their
lives. (Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE 13. Education Meeting the Needs of New
Colonialism
Education often reflects the interests and needs of new
modes of colonialism and empire, i.e. Globalization, TNCs, U.S. foreign
domination….Such dynamics must be exposed, understood, and acted
upon.(Kincheloe, 2008)
CLASS EXAMPLE 14. A Cycle of Critical Praxis Must be
Established
Praxis is a problem-solving method.
15. The Idea of Hegemony
Hegemony(domination)
is a complex notion….Groups/people who have dominant power do not always
get this power through physical force. They gain this power through social and
psychological attempts to win people’s consent. This is often done by
dominating culture, i.e. influencing media, schools, family, the Church. This
is hegemony. (Kincheloe, 2007)
Example: Hitler slowly won over the consent of the German
people; he did not take over power by force. He created organizations that
improved working conditions in factories, he developed loan programs for
families who wanted to go on vacation, he established youth groups to
indoctrinate the young, etc. As we
learnt his manipulation of the German people won them over, i.e. hegemony.
Critical Pedagogy – Final Thoughts
One of the key objectives of critical pedagogy is to allow
students to gain the necessary social skills to allow them to actively
participate in a transformed & inclusive democratic community.When you
can identify the sources of power, recognize your own position in relation to
power and understand the political nature of what you learn you can develop
your own social actions.Critical pedagogy seeks to give those who have been
excluded from power the right and ability to have an input into civic life. (Kincheloe, 2007)
WHAT IS
CRITICAL PEDAGOGY?
The purpose of this paper is to introduce the
concept of Critical Pedagogy to the classroom teacher - the person who
literally spends his or her life and energies in direct interactions and
relationship with the students in the public schools - and to offer examples of
Critical Pedagogy itself as implemented in the classroom. This writer is at
heart an elementary teacher, and is well aware of the many demands placed on
teachers today such as standardized testing; the constant paper mill of reports
and documentations; the domİnant, conservative
philosophy of education in which the structure of our schools is established:
how schools are organized, the arrangement of the typical classroom, the state
mandated curriculum and textbooks, the standardized assessment of teachers’
teaching abilities, the concept of the teacher as the authoritarian giver of
knowledge and the student as the passive receiver. These aspects of education
will be addressed, analyzed and evaluated in relation to freedom, oppression,
and democracy.
The basic tenet of Critical Pedagogy is that
there is an unequal social stratification in our society based upon class, race
and gender. McLaren states that Critical Pedagogy:
“resonates with the sensibility of the Hebrew
symbol of tikkun, which means ‘to heal, repair, and transform the world, all
the rest is commentary.’ It provides historical, cultural, political, and
ethical direction for those in education who still dare to hope. Irrevocably
committed to the side of the oppressed, critical pedagogy is as revolutionary as
the earlier view of the authors of the Declaration of Independence: is history
is fundamentally open to change, liberation is an authentic goal, and a
radically different world can be brought into being.”
Those of high power and status are at the top of
society and control the rest of society. By doing so, the unequal conditions
can be maintained; in other words, the status quo remains. Those who wish to
maintain this status quo do so because of the economic and social benefits they
derive from this stratification, hence, not wishing to lose these benefits they
fight to keep them by oppressing others. Your reaction by now may be, “That’s
ridiculous. We live in America, the land of plenty, the land of hope and
freedom. Anyone to wants to be successful in this society is free to do so. We
can’t possibly have that condition in the United States.” After all, that
sounds like some sort of dictatorship, and in a free society no one could get
away with that sort of control and power. Yet, this control is wielded through
a tool known as hegemony. Under hegemony those who are oppressed are giving
their permission to be oppressed to those who are dominating them. It is a
subtle, almost invisible, form of control, in which everyone (including the
oppressors and the oppressed) believe it is the only way, the right way. Apple
states that hegemony acts to “saturate our consciousness”, so that the
educational, economic and social world we see and interact with, and the
commonsense interpretations we put on it, become the real world, the only
world. Hegemony is a process in which domİnant groups in society come together to form a bloc and sustain
leadership over subordinate groups. Rather than relying on coercion, it relies
on winning consent to the prevailing order by forming an ideological umbrella
under which different groups who usually might not totally agree with each
other can stand. The groups are offered a compromise and feel as if their
concerns are being listened to while the domİnant groups still maintain their leadership of general social
tendencies.
Although Dewey does not use the term “hegemony”,
he too, describes this process. “Etymologically, the word education means just
a process of leading or bringing up . . . we speak of education as a shaping,
forming, molding activity - that is, a shaping into the standard form of social
activity . . . The required beliefs cannot be hammered in; the needed attitudes
cannot be plastered on. But the particular medium in which an individual exists
leads him to see and feel one thing rather than another; . . . Thus it
gradually produces in him a certain system of behavior, a certain disposition
of action.” So, what schools do is help to create and re-create the existing
culture, beliefs and practices, which is the hegemony. Hegemony is hegemony
because of its “invisibility”; it appears to simply be living and doing in the
only way we could, it seems to be perfectly natural and is therefore accepted
as commonsense. Dewey describes how the structures within schools - the subject
matter and the organization of the school - contribute to the hegemony of our
society. “ . . . the bonds which connect the subject matter of school study
with the habits and ideals of the social group are disguised and covered up.
The ties are so loosened that it often appears as if there were none; as if
subject matter existed simply as knowledge on its own independent behalf, and
as if study were the mere act of mastering it for its own sake, irrespective of
any social values. Since it is highly important for practical reasons to
counteract this tendency the chief purposes of our theoretical discussion are
to make clear the connection which is so readily lost from sight, and to show
in some detail the social content and function of the chief constituents of the
course of study. . . . The material of school studies . . puts before the
instructor the essential ingredients of the culture to be perpetuated.”
According to Raymond Williams, “Schools . . not only process people, they
process ‘knowledge’ as well.” As Apple explains, they act as agents of cultural
and ideological hegemony, as agents of selective tradition and cultural
incorporation. . . . They help create people (with the appropriate meanings and
values) who see no other serious possibility to the economic and cultural
assemblage now extant.
Democracy and freedom from oppression are the
cornerstones of Critical Pedagogy. Apple and Giroux have approached this
concept, appropriating or applying the works of Marcuse and Freire, to the
situations of many Americans whom they perceive as being blocked from
fulfilling their potential for happiness and freedom due to their race, class
and gender. Like Marcuse and Freire, the first step for attaining the necessary
change and freedom is a raising of the consciousness of the people. Both
Marcuse’s and Freire’s theories held that the existing inequalities in their
countries, or in any society, were possible to overcome once the oppressed
became aware of the hegemony - the blindness, unconsciousness of the true situation
and possibilities - which held them captive. They were slaves to a belief
system which was an integral part of the domİnant culture. Once the oppressed become aware of their situation
they can then critique it to determine what is wrong and what should be, then
make decisions and take actions toward the perceived needed change.
Many renowned educators and theorists works
contribute to or support this theory; they include Peter McLaren, Douglas
Kellner, Ira Shor, Henry Levin, John Goodlad, Theodore Sizer, Jonothan Kozol,
the Holmes Group, Michel Foucault, the Critical Theory of Herbert Marcuse and
the Frankfurt School, Pierre Bourdieu, Stanley Aronowitz, and Antonio Gramsci.
Critical Pedagogy studies the role which schools
play in maintaining the social stratification of society, and the possibilities
for social change through the schools. “Critical pedagogy is both a way of
thinking about and negotiating through praxis the relationship among classroom
teaching, the production of knowledge, the larger institutional structures of
the school, and the social and material relations of the wider community,
society, and nation state.” Peter McLaren explains that Critical Pedagogy is an
approach adopted by progressive teachers attempting to eliminate inequalities on
the basis of social class, and that it has also sparked a wide array of
anti-sexist, anti-racist, and anti-homophobic classroom-based curricula and
policy initiatives. Common questions for the critical educator include: What
knowledge is of most worth? Whose knowledge is most important? What knowledge
should be taught, and just as important, what knowledge is not to be taught?
How does the structure of the school contribute to the social stratification of
our society? What is the relationship between knowledge and power? What does
this imply for our children? What is the purpose of schooling? Is it to ensure
democracy or to maintain the status quo and support big business? How can
teachers enable students to become critical thinkers who will promote true democracy
and freedom?
Ira Shor identifies principal goals of Critical
Pedagogy: “when pedagogy and curricular policy reflect egalitarian goals, they
do what education can do:
I. Oppose socialization with desocialization
II. Choose critical consciousness over
commercial consciousness
III. Transformation of society over reproduction
of inequality
IV. Promote democracy by practicing it and by
studying authoritarianism
V. Challenge student withdrawal through
participatory courses
VI. Illuminate the myths supporting the elite
hierarchy of society
VII. Interfere with the scholastic disabling of
students through a critical literacy program
VIII. Raise awareness about the thought and
language expressed in daily life
IX. Distribute research skills and censored information
useful for investigating power and policy in society
X. Invite students to reflect socially on their
conditions, to consider overcoming limits. . . .
Shor says we must pose the question of critical
pedagogy (desocialization) when we discuss teacher education programs or
curriculum at any level of schooling. Once we accept education’s role as
challenging inequality and domİnant myths rather
than as socializing students into the status quo, we have a foundation needed
to invent practical methods.”
Critical Pedagogy, then, is defined by what it
does - as a pedagogy which embraces a raising of the consciousness, a critique
of society, as valuing students’ voices, as honoring students’ needs, values,
and individuality, as a hopeful, active pedagogy which enables students to
become truly participatory members of a society who not only belong to the
society but who can and do create and re-create that society, continually
increasing freedom. Marcuse states that liberation “presupposes a knowledge and
sensibility which the established order, through its class system of education,
blocks for the majority of the people.”
Freire states that there is no such thing as a
neutral educational process. “Education either functions as an instrument that
is used to facilitate the integration of the younger generation in to the logic
of the present system and bring about conformity to it, or it becomes ‘the
practice of freedom’ the means by which men and women deal critically and
creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the transformation
of their world.” Michael Apple also argues that education is not a neutral
enterprise, that by the very nature of the institution, the educator is
involved, whether he or she is conscious of it or not, in a political act. He
attempts to analyze and understand the relationship between education and
economic structure, and the connections between knowledge and power. Apple
approaches his analysis in three ways: l) the school as an institution, 2) the
educator him or herself, and 3) the knowledge forms. Each of these are situated
within the larger context of society. Ira Shor states that the strongest
potential of education lies in studying the politics and student cultures
affecting the classroom. “It is politically naive or simply ‘technocratic’ to
see the classroom as a world apart where inequality, ideology, and economic
policy don’t affect learning
“The first need is to become aware of the world
in which we live; to survey its forces; to see the opposition in forces that
are contending for mastery; to make up one’s mind which of these forces come
from a past that the world in its potential powers has outlived and which are
indicative of a better and happier future.” In 1958 John Dewey described the
contradictions and problems with which our society was dealing; those issues
remain today, and the relevance of Dewey’s recommendations are as true for us
today as they were in 1958. He states that it is the task of teachers to help
put things right, whether or not teachers feel it is their duty; whether
teachers choose to do so or not, they are still choosing, since the very act of
intentionally doing nothing is still doing something. One cannot not choose.
“Drifting is merely a cowardly mode of choice” His point is that teachers
should become aware themselves of our present situation and after conducting
intelligent study they should make a choice and base whatever actions they
choose on that informed decision. He felt that it was important for teachers,
parents and other educators to understand the social forces and movements of
the times and the role of the schools, which could not be accomplished unless
teachers were aware of a social goal. Dewey knew that teachers, in general, do
not feel that they have time for general theories, yet he states that the first
prerequisite of intelligent decision and action is understanding of the forces
at work. “The most specific thing that teachers can first do is something
general.” For this reason, it is imperative that teachers as well as those in
teacher education programs take the time to study the constructs and power
structures within our society, to determine how these impact educational
policies, curriculum, testing, accountability, teaching methods and materials.
Teachers need to reflect upon what they are doing and why they are doing it.
When offering suggestions for the elements of an
educational platform, Henry Giroux discusses Critical Pedagogy . . . Rejecting
the traditional view of instruction and learning as a neutral process antiseptically
removed from the contexts of history, power, and ideology, critical educational
theory begins with the assumption that schools are essential sites for
organizing knowledge, power and desire in the service of extending individual
capacities and social possibilities.
PAULO FREIRE AND THE ROLE OF CRITICAL
PEDAGOGY
Critical
pedagogy is a teaching method that aims to help in challenging and
actively struggling against any form of social oppression and the related
customs and beliefs. It is a form of theory and practice which serves to
let pupils gain a critical awareness Critical pedagogy is a type of
pedagogy in which criticism of the established order and social
criticism are essential. Critical pedagogy wants to question society in
its understanding of the role that education has. From this point of
view, social critique is necessary if one does not want an upbringing and
education that contributes to the reproduction of inequality
An important key
concept in this is emancipation. It is emancipation, liberation from
oppressive social relations, which critical pedagogy is committed to.
Social critique leads to social change. With this mode of critique we want
students to see clearly that phenomena like inequality are not
necessary, but arose in a certain historical context that has been
established and produced by man-made social processes. Upon becoming aware
of this reality, a person no longer needs to feel like a manipulable
object anymore.
According to the
critical pedagogy, education is inherently political, and any kind of
pedagogy should be aware of this fact. A social and educational vision of
justice and equality should be the basis for any kind of education. The
liberation from oppression and human suffering should be an important
dimension in education.
Education should
promote both emancipatory change as well as the cultivation of the
intellect. It should be kept in mind that the current education system is
a reflection of the interests of the existing system of exploitation.
This dynamic must be exposed by critical pedagogy, understood, after which
action should be taken against it as part of a praxis towards social
change; a cycle of theory, practice, evaluation and reflection.
Paulo Freire’s
“Pedagogy of the Oppressed”
Paulo Freire is
the grandfather and one of the major contributors to critical pedagogy. Freire,
who became a professor of history and philosophy of education at the
University of Recife in Brazil, experienced and learned from the plight of
poverty and hunger during the Great Depression of 1929. This experience
imbued in him a deep concern for the poor, which influenced his views on
education.
He is best known
for his book “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” in which he described how
people have have been untaught or have never learned to think
critically about their situation. Most people accept their situation
as inevitable and as belonging to life itself. Only when they
become aware of their situation and are able to assign meaning to it
(collectively called a process of “conscientization”), the step a step
can be made toward changing the situation.
Four levels of
consciousness
Freire speaks in
this context of four levels of consciousness:
1) Magical
consciousness; at this level of consciousness people experience
themselves as completely impotent to do something about their personal
and socio-economic position. They are, as it were, controlled by outside
forces like the gods in mythology who could intervene in the life of man without
being able to defend oneself against them.
2) Naive
consciousness; at this level one is able to make a distinction between oneself
and the outside world. Life is not seen as something that just happens to
you, but it gets contours in the sense that there are things that are
within your reach, and other things that you think you need others for.
They know that they can do something about their situation, but is also
convinced of not being capable of a lot of other things as well. The difference
between the first and second level of consciousness is that magical
consciousness has been transcended by a more thorough understanding of
the existing situation.
3) Critical consciousness; at this level, one discovers not only the distinction between self and others, but one is also, due to the distinction, able to change things. At this level there is a growing understanding of one’s own capabilities and because of that also a way of relativizing the power of others. One will recognize how oppression occurs, which role one has in that situation and how one can fight it by intervening.
4) Political consciousness; on this highest level people discover from their perception of reality that others share their perception of reality, and they also share some of the same problems. This leads to that people combine their strengths and try to influence politics and negate the situation of oppression. According to Freire “Nobody liberates nobody, nobody liberates themselves alone: human beings liberate themselves in communion.”
People create their own consciousness of struggle by changing reality and freeing themselves from the oppression that is embedded by traditional pedagogy. Similarly, when one learns a new way of thinking, the understanding of one’s own social status has a transformative effect. Freire’s method has thus two successive moments: the first relates to the awareness of reality that one is oppressed and is submitted to the decisions imposed by the oppressor, the second refers to the initiative of the oppressed to fight and emancipate themselves from the oppressors.
Critique of educational banking
Freire criticized the traditional education method of simply depositing knowledge, or what he called the “banking concept of education”; which only strengthens the established order. Instead of communicating with the students, the teacher gives deposits which the students have to patiently receive. They are not considered as able to do more than to organize and accumulate the deposits.
This “banking” concept is the reflection of the dichotomous oppressive society we live in: the teacher knows everything and the students know nothing, the teacher thinks and the students are being thought, the teacher talks and the students listen obediently.
The success of this method depends on the willingness to swallow. Those who are not willing to cram themselves with deposits remain supposedly ‘undeveloped’.
Freire looked for a method that is conscientizing and thus comes to the basic principle of his educational theory: Education can never be neutral, it is either an instrument of liberation or an instrument of domestication. Or as Richard Shaull formulated it in the preface of the Pedagogy of the Oppressed:
3) Critical consciousness; at this level, one discovers not only the distinction between self and others, but one is also, due to the distinction, able to change things. At this level there is a growing understanding of one’s own capabilities and because of that also a way of relativizing the power of others. One will recognize how oppression occurs, which role one has in that situation and how one can fight it by intervening.
4) Political consciousness; on this highest level people discover from their perception of reality that others share their perception of reality, and they also share some of the same problems. This leads to that people combine their strengths and try to influence politics and negate the situation of oppression. According to Freire “Nobody liberates nobody, nobody liberates themselves alone: human beings liberate themselves in communion.”
People create their own consciousness of struggle by changing reality and freeing themselves from the oppression that is embedded by traditional pedagogy. Similarly, when one learns a new way of thinking, the understanding of one’s own social status has a transformative effect. Freire’s method has thus two successive moments: the first relates to the awareness of reality that one is oppressed and is submitted to the decisions imposed by the oppressor, the second refers to the initiative of the oppressed to fight and emancipate themselves from the oppressors.
Critique of educational banking
Freire criticized the traditional education method of simply depositing knowledge, or what he called the “banking concept of education”; which only strengthens the established order. Instead of communicating with the students, the teacher gives deposits which the students have to patiently receive. They are not considered as able to do more than to organize and accumulate the deposits.
This “banking” concept is the reflection of the dichotomous oppressive society we live in: the teacher knows everything and the students know nothing, the teacher thinks and the students are being thought, the teacher talks and the students listen obediently.
The success of this method depends on the willingness to swallow. Those who are not willing to cram themselves with deposits remain supposedly ‘undeveloped’.
Freire looked for a method that is conscientizing and thus comes to the basic principle of his educational theory: Education can never be neutral, it is either an instrument of liberation or an instrument of domestication. Or as Richard Shaull formulated it in the preface of the Pedagogy of the Oppressed:
“There is no
neutral education process. Education either functions as an instrument
which is used to facilitate the integration of generations into the logic
of the present system and bring about conformity to it, or it
becomes the 'practice of freedom’, the means by which men and women deal
critically with reality and discover how to participate in the
transformation of their world.”
Freire adds that this does not depend on the content of the education provided, nor the good will of the educator, decisive here is the educational process itself.
If the individual does not fight for its interests, and its cultural and social emancipation, it seems that one has lost the love for life. Thus the necrophilia, that prevails in the world today, is reproduced by the type of education given at school. The pedagogy that Freire proposes is the opposite of that described above. It suggests that the individual has a love for life, teaches a cultivation of being - by being in the world, not of or under the world - a condition brought about by liberation. This necessitates a kind of education that isn’t alienating and mechanistic.
Education that liberates the individual must be a conscious act in which the content is understood and analyzed, with the dichotomy that exists between teacher and student is transcended; it should negate the unidirectional (coming from one side) relationship to replace it with bidirectionality (coming from both sides) to contribute to the education of both parties, because both have the elements to offer each other insights. The teacher is hereby turned into the pupil of his own pupils. “Nobody educates anybody else, nobody educates himself, people educate each other through their interactions of the world.”
The role of the teacher is to problematize the world, thereby creating the right conditions so that learning process transcends the 'doxa’ (undoubted axioms) to get to the level of “logos” (actual understanding). This type of learning helps people to create new with the expectations and reach a reflective state where they discover their own reality. It creates new challenges that instigates pupils to self-construction of the world, in which they have a real and direct participation in the activities in which they are involved. All this demands that we problematize the individual as such, without mediation by artificial experiences in the learning process.
Dialogics and conscientization
Man is not allowed to understand reality and change it in an education that is just one method to adapt to reality. To bring the awareness process in motion there must be dialogue, because man does not create oneself in silence, but by words, actions and reflection. The use of such a dialogue is the main element in the learning process.
To understand the reasoning of Freire one should start from his image of man. Through their actions people work on the world, they change the world. Because of their ability to reflect, people take distance from themselves, from their actions, from the world; this reflection again leads to action. The aforementioned cycle forms the praxis, that is to say the way in which the human being is manifested in the world. “To become human” happens in praxis. No seperation can therefore be made between action and reflection.
Dialogue can only happen by the speaking of “own words” with which the individual reflects its reality, it is the only way to get the understanding of this reality and change it. In opposition to the depository education system that maintains the system, Freire proposes the problematizing education with consciëntisering (coming to consciousness) as a goal. Learning is not 'eating’ of false words, it is not programming, learning problematizing by raising questions. The subject matter is the life situation of the pupil.
Dialogics and antidialogics
Freire adds that this does not depend on the content of the education provided, nor the good will of the educator, decisive here is the educational process itself.
If the individual does not fight for its interests, and its cultural and social emancipation, it seems that one has lost the love for life. Thus the necrophilia, that prevails in the world today, is reproduced by the type of education given at school. The pedagogy that Freire proposes is the opposite of that described above. It suggests that the individual has a love for life, teaches a cultivation of being - by being in the world, not of or under the world - a condition brought about by liberation. This necessitates a kind of education that isn’t alienating and mechanistic.
Education that liberates the individual must be a conscious act in which the content is understood and analyzed, with the dichotomy that exists between teacher and student is transcended; it should negate the unidirectional (coming from one side) relationship to replace it with bidirectionality (coming from both sides) to contribute to the education of both parties, because both have the elements to offer each other insights. The teacher is hereby turned into the pupil of his own pupils. “Nobody educates anybody else, nobody educates himself, people educate each other through their interactions of the world.”
The role of the teacher is to problematize the world, thereby creating the right conditions so that learning process transcends the 'doxa’ (undoubted axioms) to get to the level of “logos” (actual understanding). This type of learning helps people to create new with the expectations and reach a reflective state where they discover their own reality. It creates new challenges that instigates pupils to self-construction of the world, in which they have a real and direct participation in the activities in which they are involved. All this demands that we problematize the individual as such, without mediation by artificial experiences in the learning process.
Dialogics and conscientization
Man is not allowed to understand reality and change it in an education that is just one method to adapt to reality. To bring the awareness process in motion there must be dialogue, because man does not create oneself in silence, but by words, actions and reflection. The use of such a dialogue is the main element in the learning process.
To understand the reasoning of Freire one should start from his image of man. Through their actions people work on the world, they change the world. Because of their ability to reflect, people take distance from themselves, from their actions, from the world; this reflection again leads to action. The aforementioned cycle forms the praxis, that is to say the way in which the human being is manifested in the world. “To become human” happens in praxis. No seperation can therefore be made between action and reflection.
Dialogue can only happen by the speaking of “own words” with which the individual reflects its reality, it is the only way to get the understanding of this reality and change it. In opposition to the depository education system that maintains the system, Freire proposes the problematizing education with consciëntisering (coming to consciousness) as a goal. Learning is not 'eating’ of false words, it is not programming, learning problematizing by raising questions. The subject matter is the life situation of the pupil.
Dialogics and antidialogics
Freire
recognizes that the practice of conscientization that he recommends can
run up against “limiting situations”, and that these situations are a
product of the resistance by the oppressing classes to any change of the
status quo, which is so important to them. This can lead to defeat and
apathy among the oppressed classes. According to Freire it is “not the apathy
of the masses which leads to the power of the elite, but it is the power
of the elite, which makes the masses apathetic.”
For this Freire
worked out opposing frameworks for cultural action, antidialogics and
dialogics, the former being the oppressive one, and works through
submission, division, manipulation, and cultural invasion and the latter
the liberating one, which works through cooperation, association,
organization, and cultural synthesis.
The oppressor uses antidialogics in different ways in order to maintain the status quo. He subdues the oppressed with an unwavering unilateral dialogue , in which the communication is transformed into a necrophiliac act . The ideological instrument is often used here for complete submission.
The oppressor also attempts to dissuade people to unite through dialogue. One of their main activities is to weaken the oppressed through alienation , with the idea that this will provide internal divisions, and that in this way things will remain stable. In their implicit discourse they warn that it is dangerous for “social harmony” to talk about concepts like association and organization. Compared with those who fight against them, the oppressors seem the the only ones who can maintain the needed harmony in life. But this is only an attempt to ensure divisions. If an individual decides to fight for liberation the person is stigmatized, all in an attempt to avoid the historically inevitable realization of freedom.
The oppressor also uses antidialogics by abusing ideology to manipulate people and to agree with the goals proposed by the oppressor, but entirely at the expense of the oppressed.
Freire discussed as the last feature of antidialogics that of cultural invasion, where the oppressed are the turned into objects, while the oppressors are the actors and authors of the process. This is a subliminal tactic that is used to control and leads to the inauthenticity of individuals. The greater the level of imitation by the oppressed, the greater the calm for the oppressors. What happens to the masses is a loss of values, a transformation in their way of speaking and willingly supporting the oppressor.
In contrast with antidialogics, dialogics is a form of community empowerment. This process is not due to the presence of some prophetic leader, but by the covenant that occurs when there is communication and interaction between the leader and the masses in order to to achieve liberation and discover the world, instead of adjust to it. This happens when there is mutual trust, so that a revolutionary praxis can be developed, where humility and constant dialogue is needed by all participants.
To complement this collaboration it is necessary to form associations with the joint effort towards liberation. This implies a form of cultural action that teaches to join a revolutionary aspiration without falling into ideological hyperbole. Instead, the goal should be described as something it really is, namely a human act, not some exaggerated event. Dialogical action also requires the organization to avoid ideological coercion from above.
Organization is a necessary element of revolutionary struggle, it implies coherence between action and practice, courage, radicalization without sectarianism and the courage to love. All these aspects should be present without naivety . Of course, for revolutionary action, there must also be discipline, order, precise objectives, clear tasks to be fulfilled and accountability, but dialogics is mainly about the awakening that is required from the encountered oppression.
The final characteristic of dialogical action is the cultural synthesis that aims to overcome the contradiction created by the oppressor. This addresses the strength of one’s own culture as a creative act and avenges the oppressed by giving another perception on the world than the one imposed without consultation or assessment.
The role of revolution
Revolution is for Paulo Freire removal of the structures and mechanisms that cause different forms of oppression in the society. It is about overturning political and economic powers that the are the cause of the oppression of the majority. The conscientization is assigned an essential role here. The oppressed must be made not only aware of their own value, they must also be freed from their image of man that they derive from the oppressors with whom they have an ambivalent relationship.
For Freire dialogue belongs to the essence of being human: human life is not live 'alone’, they live 'together’ in the world. In that sense, the oppressor maimed his own humanity, because he is not 'the others’. Revolution implies, in addition to the empowerment and recognition of the human dignity of the oppressed, at the same time humanizing the oppressors.
On Utopia
Freire want individuals to forms themselves rather than being formed (from above). With this goal in mind, he suggests that subjects must be taught that come from the everyday experience of the individual and that we have to avoid the pitfalls of current education to gravitate towards artificial oppressive experiences.
Paulo Freire teaches us that only dialogue, which requires critical thinking, can bring forthh critical thinking. He proposes to problematize one’s life to realize that one needs both another situation without oppression as well one can really achieve such a situation. Is this utopian? Maybe. But utopia serves as the receding horizon, where the journey never ends, and the effort of the journey can makes the chance of a more humane society, where peace reigns, larger every day.
The oppressor uses antidialogics in different ways in order to maintain the status quo. He subdues the oppressed with an unwavering unilateral dialogue , in which the communication is transformed into a necrophiliac act . The ideological instrument is often used here for complete submission.
The oppressor also attempts to dissuade people to unite through dialogue. One of their main activities is to weaken the oppressed through alienation , with the idea that this will provide internal divisions, and that in this way things will remain stable. In their implicit discourse they warn that it is dangerous for “social harmony” to talk about concepts like association and organization. Compared with those who fight against them, the oppressors seem the the only ones who can maintain the needed harmony in life. But this is only an attempt to ensure divisions. If an individual decides to fight for liberation the person is stigmatized, all in an attempt to avoid the historically inevitable realization of freedom.
The oppressor also uses antidialogics by abusing ideology to manipulate people and to agree with the goals proposed by the oppressor, but entirely at the expense of the oppressed.
Freire discussed as the last feature of antidialogics that of cultural invasion, where the oppressed are the turned into objects, while the oppressors are the actors and authors of the process. This is a subliminal tactic that is used to control and leads to the inauthenticity of individuals. The greater the level of imitation by the oppressed, the greater the calm for the oppressors. What happens to the masses is a loss of values, a transformation in their way of speaking and willingly supporting the oppressor.
In contrast with antidialogics, dialogics is a form of community empowerment. This process is not due to the presence of some prophetic leader, but by the covenant that occurs when there is communication and interaction between the leader and the masses in order to to achieve liberation and discover the world, instead of adjust to it. This happens when there is mutual trust, so that a revolutionary praxis can be developed, where humility and constant dialogue is needed by all participants.
To complement this collaboration it is necessary to form associations with the joint effort towards liberation. This implies a form of cultural action that teaches to join a revolutionary aspiration without falling into ideological hyperbole. Instead, the goal should be described as something it really is, namely a human act, not some exaggerated event. Dialogical action also requires the organization to avoid ideological coercion from above.
Organization is a necessary element of revolutionary struggle, it implies coherence between action and practice, courage, radicalization without sectarianism and the courage to love. All these aspects should be present without naivety . Of course, for revolutionary action, there must also be discipline, order, precise objectives, clear tasks to be fulfilled and accountability, but dialogics is mainly about the awakening that is required from the encountered oppression.
The final characteristic of dialogical action is the cultural synthesis that aims to overcome the contradiction created by the oppressor. This addresses the strength of one’s own culture as a creative act and avenges the oppressed by giving another perception on the world than the one imposed without consultation or assessment.
The role of revolution
Revolution is for Paulo Freire removal of the structures and mechanisms that cause different forms of oppression in the society. It is about overturning political and economic powers that the are the cause of the oppression of the majority. The conscientization is assigned an essential role here. The oppressed must be made not only aware of their own value, they must also be freed from their image of man that they derive from the oppressors with whom they have an ambivalent relationship.
For Freire dialogue belongs to the essence of being human: human life is not live 'alone’, they live 'together’ in the world. In that sense, the oppressor maimed his own humanity, because he is not 'the others’. Revolution implies, in addition to the empowerment and recognition of the human dignity of the oppressed, at the same time humanizing the oppressors.
On Utopia
Freire want individuals to forms themselves rather than being formed (from above). With this goal in mind, he suggests that subjects must be taught that come from the everyday experience of the individual and that we have to avoid the pitfalls of current education to gravitate towards artificial oppressive experiences.
Paulo Freire teaches us that only dialogue, which requires critical thinking, can bring forthh critical thinking. He proposes to problematize one’s life to realize that one needs both another situation without oppression as well one can really achieve such a situation. Is this utopian? Maybe. But utopia serves as the receding horizon, where the journey never ends, and the effort of the journey can makes the chance of a more humane society, where peace reigns, larger every day.
How does Critical
Pedagogy look like in the classroom?
In order to
understand how critical pedagogy can be applied and how it may be demonstrated
in the classroom. Understanding that
critical pedagogy is a movement in which in education it empowers students and
teachers to recognize hegemony tendencies by developing consciousness social
justice and connecting the knowledge to take action and creating change.
Critical pedagogy is based on Paulo
Freire, who is known to be the founder of critical pedagogy. His philosophies centered on adult
education. Since then, other critical
thinkers have applied his practices in the classroom such as Henry Giroux, Ira
Shor, John Dewey to name a few.
Critical pedagogy can
be identified by the following:
Discourse
The teacher can
either pose a question or an idea as students interact in conversation about
the particular subject selected. A teacher can also pose a problem that exists
in their community. The students learn about the idea as they interact in
discourse with the teacher, members of community, and between students.
Guided by the Teacher
The teacher guides
the students to the objective, that is what they are going to learn through the
use of past events in history or current events that are occurring. The activities selected by the teacher
promote communication and allows the student to view other perspectives and
incorporate real-word experiences.
However, the idea or concept they
learn is relevant in some way to the students. A possible event in
history that impacted their community connected to a world event, similar to
the video can be used in the lesson.
Students'
Create/Explore/Develop
The teacher allows
the students to expand on the idea
or point of view the teacher
wants them to understand and reflect. This is similar to the exploration and
evaluation of the 5 E model. However,
students do not use materials given by the teacher. The
students input is based on what they think and particularly seeking the
right or wrong answer is not the objective of the lesson. Students should feel empowered in learning. The outcome of the lesson depends on the
students interest and effort
Here are four
dimensions of critical pedagogy (Lewison,Flint, and Sluys, 2002) that can be
applied in the classroom.
Disrupting the
commonplace
Interrogating
multiple viewpoints
Focusing on social
political issues
Taking action and
promoting social justice
A Great Example
of incorporating Critical Pedagogy
“Education either functions as an instrument
which is used to facilitate integration of the younger generation into the logic
of the present system and bring about conformity or it becomes the practice of
freedom, the means by which men and women deal critically and creatively with
reality and discover how to participate in the transformation of their world.”
―
Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Conclusion
Critical pedagogy is
a philosophy of education and social movement that combines education with critical theory.[1] First described by Paulo Freire, it has since been developed by Henry Giroux and others as a praxis-oriented "educational movement, guided by passion and
principle, to help students develop consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and
connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action."[2] Among its leading figures are Michael Apple, bell hooks, Joe L. Kincheloe, Peter McLaren, Henry Giroux, and Patti Lather.
"Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go
beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official
pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to
understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and
personal consequences of any action, event, object, process, organization,
experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse." (Empowering
Education, 129)
Critical pedagogy includes relationships between teaching and
learning. Its proponents claim that it is a continuous process of what they
call "unlearning", "learning", and "relearning",
"reflection", "evaluation", and the impact that these
actions have on the students, in particular students whom they believe have
been historically and continue to be disenfranchised by what they call
"traditional schooling".
***
4.MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (MI
Theory)
-Multiple
Intelligence Theory was introduced by Howard Gardner in his work, ‘Frames of Mind’ in 1983. MI theory ensures multifaceted
intellectual development for the all
round development of the child.
- MI
Theory proposes the harmonies nurturing
of the nine areas of human intellect-
the issue based curriculum in the
schools, is designed based on MI theory.
The discourse oriented pedagogy
where various discourses are taught through various discourses are meant
to develop the nine areas of human
intellect.
Multiple Intelligence by Howard Gardner-1983, modified in
1999
Verbal/linguistic
Logical/mathematical
Visual/spatial
Musical/rhythmic
Bodily/kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intra-personal
Naturalistic
Existential
Verbal/linguistic-(realising objectives through reading,
writing and speaking).
Logical/mathematical-(ability to locate areas region,
nation, measure distance between two places)
Visual/spatial-creative and artistic talents-models,
pictures, specimen, constructive work, murals
Musical/rhythmic-singing, composing songs, playing
instruments,
Bodily/kinesthetic-Skills in performing arts-dance, games
artforms
Interpersonal-Desirable behaviour and mutual transactions
,accepted styles of social behaviour
Intra-personal-identifying and finding solutions for his own
personal and internal stress and conflicts
Naturalistic-Ability to learn and appreciate the natural
phenomena around-appreciate natural
Existential-More realistic insight into realities
Multiple Intelligences Theory
Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory was first
published in Howard Gardner's book, Frames Of Mind (1983), and quickly became
established as a classical model by which to understand and teach many aspects
of human intelligence, learning style, personality and behaviour - in education
and industry. Howard Gardner initially developed his ideas and theory on
multiple intelligences as a contribution to psychology, however Gardner's
theory was soon embraced by education, teaching and training communities, for
whom the appeal was immediate and irresistible - a sure sign that Gardner had
created a classic reference work and learning model.
Howard Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania USA in 1943
to German Jewish immigrant parents, and entered Harvard in 1961, where, after
Gardner's shift from history into social relations (which included psychology,
sociology, and anthropology) he met his early mentor Erik Erikson. Later
Gardner was also influenced by psychologists Jeane Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and
philosopher Nelson Goodman, with whom Gardner co-founded 'Project Zero' in
1967 (focusing on studies of artistic thought and creativity). Project Zero's
1970's 'Project on Human Potential', whose heady aim was to address 'the state
of scientific knowledge concerning human potential and its realization', seems
to have been the platform from which Gardner's multiple intelligences ideas
grew, and were subsequently published in Gardner's Frames Of Mind 1983 book. A
wonderful example of 'thinking big' if ever there was one.
At the time I write/revise this summary (2005-2012) Howard
Gardner is the (John H and Elisabeth A) Hobbs Professor of Cognition and
Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education; he serves as adjunct
Professor at Harvard University, Boston University School of Medicine, and
remains senior director of Harvard Project Zero. Gardner has received honorary
degrees from at least twenty foreign institutions, and has written over twenty
highly regarded books on the human mind, learning and behaviour. How ironic
then that Gardner, who has contributed so much to the understanding of people
and behaviour, was born (according to his brief auto-biographical paper 'One Way
To Make Social Scientist', 2003), cross-eyed, myopic, colour-blind and unable
to recognise faces. There's hope for us all.
Since establishing his original multiple intelligences model,
Howard Gardner has continued to develop his thinking and theory, so you will
see references to more than the seven intelligences nowadays. Gardner most
recently refers to their being eight or nine intelligences.
This article chiefly focuses on the original seven
intelligences model.
howard
gardner's multiple intelligences theory
This simple grid diagram illustrates Howard Gardner's model
of the seven Multiple Intelligences at a glance.
|
intelligence
type
|
capability
and perception
|
|
Linguistic
|
words
and language
|
|
Logical-Mathematical
|
logic
and numbers
|
|
Musical
|
music,
sound, rhythm
|
|
Bodily-Kinesthetic
|
body
movement control
|
|
Spatial-Visual
|
images
and space
|
|
Interpersonal
|
other
people's feelings
|
|
Intrapersonal
|
self-awareness
|
Free
multiple intelligences tests based on Howard Gardner's
seven-intelligences model are available below in MSExcel self-calculating format,
manual versions in MSExcel and pdf, and manual test versions for young people.
Gardner said that multiple intelligences were not limited to
the original seven, and he has since considered the existence and definitions
of other possible intelligences in his later work. Despite this, Gardner seems
to have stopped short of adding to the seven (some might argue, with the
exception of Naturalist Intelligence) with any clearly and fully detailed
additional intelligence definitions. This is not because there are no more
intelligences - it is because of the difficulty of adequately and
satisfactorily defining them, since the additional intelligences are rather
more complex than those already evidenced and defined.
Not surprisingly, commentators and theorists continually
debate and interpret potential additions to the model, and this is why you
might see more than seven intelligences listed in recent interpretations of
Gardner's model. As mentioned above, Naturalist Intelligence seems most
popularly considered worthy of inclusion of the potential additional 'Gardner'
intelligences.
gardner's
suggested possible additional intelligences
|
intelligence
type
|
capability
and perception
|
|
Naturalist
|
natural
environment
|
|
Spiritual/Existential
|
religion
and 'ultimate issues'
|
|
Moral
|
ethics,
humanity, value of life
|
If you think about the items above it's easy to see why
Gardner and his followers have found it quite difficult to augment the original
seven intelligences. The original seven are relatively cut and dried; the seven
intelligences are measurable, we know what they are, what they mean, and we can
evidence or illustrate them. However the potential additional human
capabilities, perceptions and attunements, are highly subjective and complex,
and arguably contain many overlapping aspects. Also, the fact that these
additional intelligences could be deemed a measure of good or bad poses extra
questions as to their inclusion in what is otherwise a model which has hitherto
made no such judgement (good or bad, that is - it's a long sentence...).
gardner's
multiple intelligences - detail
The more detailed diagram below expands the detail for the
original seven intelligences shown above, and also suggests ideas for applying
the model and underpinning theories, so as to optimise learning and training,
design accelerated learning methods, and to assess training and learning
suitability and effectiveness.
|
|
intelligence
type
|
description
|
typical
roles
|
related
tasks, activities or tests
|
preferred
learning style clues
|
|
1
|
Linguistic
|
words
and language, written and spoken; retention,
interpretation and explanation of ideas and information via language,
understands relationship between communication and meaning
|
writers,
lawyers, journalists, speakers, trainers, copy-writers, english teachers,
poets, editors, linguists, translators, PR consultants, media consultants, TV
and radio presenters, voice-over artistes
|
write
a set of instructions; speak on a subject; edit a written piece or work;
write a speech; commentate on an event; apply positive or negative 'spin' to
a story
|
words
and language
|
|
2
|
Logical-Mathematical
|
logical
thinking, detecting patterns, scientific
reasoning and deduction; analyse problems, perform mathematical calculations,
understands relationship between cause and effect towards a tangible outcome
or result
|
scientists,
engineers, computer experts, accountants, statisticians, researchers,
analysts, traders, bankers bookmakers, insurance brokers, negotiators,
deal-makers, trouble-shooters, directors
|
perform
a mental arithmetic calculation; create a process to measure something
difficult; analyse how a machine works; create a process; devise a strategy
to achieve an aim; assess the value of a business or a proposition
|
numbers
and logic
|
|
3
|
Musical
|
musical
ability, awareness, appreciation and use of
sound; recognition of tonal and rhythmic patterns, understands relationship
between sound and feeling
|
musicians,
singers, composers, DJ's, music producers, piano tuners, acoustic engineers,
entertainers, party-planners, environment and noise advisors, voice coaches
|
perform
a musical piece; sing a song; review a musical work; coach someone to play a
musical instrument; specify mood music for telephone systems and receptions
|
music,
sounds, rhythm
|
|
4
|
Bodily-Kinesthetic
|
body
movement control, manual dexterity, physical agility
and balance; eye and body coordination
|
dancers,
demonstrators, actors, athletes, divers, sports-people, soldiers,
fire-fighters, PTI's, performance artistes; ergonomists, osteopaths,
fishermen, drivers, crafts-people; gardeners, chefs, acupuncturists, healers,
adventurers
|
juggle;
demonstrate a sports technique; flip a beer-mat; create a mime to explain
something; toss a pancake; fly a kite; coach workplace posture, assess
work-station ergonomics
|
physical
experience and movement, touch and feel
|
|
5
|
Spatial-Visual
|
visual
and spatial perception; interpretation and creation of
visual images; pictorial imagination and expression; understands relationship
between images and meanings, and between space and effect
|
artists,
designers, cartoonists, story-boarders, architects, photographers, sculptors,
town-planners, visionaries, inventors, engineers, cosmetics and beauty
consultants
|
design
a costume; interpret a painting; create a room layout; create a corporate
logo; design a building; pack a suitcase or the boot of a car
|
pictures,
shapes, images, 3D space
|
|
6
|
Interpersonal
|
perception
of other people's feelings; ability to relate to others;
interpretation of behaviour and communications; understands the relationships
between people and their situations, including other people
|
therapists,
HR professionals, mediators, leaders, counsellors, politicians, eductors,
sales-people, clergy, psychologists, teachers, doctors, healers, organisers,
carers, advertising professionals, coaches and mentors; (there is clear
association between this type of intelligence and what is now termed'Emotional
Intelligence' or EQ)
|
interpret
moods from facial expressions; demonstrate feelings through body
language; affect the feelings of others in a
planned way; coach or counsel another person
|
human
contact, communications, cooperation, teamwork
|
|
7
|
Intrapersonal
|
self-awareness,
personal cognisance, personal objectivity, the capability to understand
oneself, one's relationship to others and the world, and one's own need for,
and reaction to change
|
arguably
anyone (see note below) who is self-aware and involved in the process of
changing personal thoughts, beliefs and behaviour in relation to their
situation, other people, their purpose and aims - in this respect there is a
similarity to Maslow's Self-Actualisation level,
and again there is clear association between this type of intelligence and
what is now termed'Emotional Intelligence' or EQ
|
consider
and decide one's own aims and personal changes required to achieve them (not
necessarily reveal this to others); consider one's own 'Johari
Window', and decide options for development;
consider and decide one's own position in relation to the Emotional
Intelligence model
|
self-reflection,
self-discovery
|
Roles and intrapersonal intelligence: Given that a 'role' tends to imply external style/skills,
engagement, etc., the intrapersonal ability is less liable to define or suggest
a certain role or range of roles than any of the other characteristics. That
said, there is a clear correlation between intrapersonal ability/potential and
introverted non-judgemental roles/working styles. Intrapersonal capability
might also be seen as the opposite of ego and self-projection. Self-awareness
is a prerequisite for self-discipline and self-improvement. Intrapersonal
capacity enables an emotionally mature ('grown-up') response
to external and internal stimuli. The intrapersonal characteristic might
therefore be found among (but most definitely not extending to all)
counsellors, helpers, translators, teachers, actors, poets, writers, musicians,
artists,and also any other role to which people can bring emotional
maturity, which commonly manifests as adaptability, flexibility,
facilitation, reflection, and other 'grown-up' behaviours. There are also
associations between intrapersonal capacity and Erikson's 'generative'
perspective, and to an extent Maslow's self-actualization,
that is to say: both of these 'life-stages' surely demand a reasonably strong
level of self-awareness, without which adapting one's personal life, outlook
and responses to one's environment is not easy at all.
multiple
intelligences tests
free Multiple Intelligences test (based on Howard
Gardner's model) - in MSExcel self-calculating format, and
other versions:
free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test
in MSExcel
free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test
in pdf format
free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test for young
people in MSExcel
free Multiple Intelligences test - manual test for young
people in pdf format
Multiple Intelligences descriptions - pdf format
(If you are using a test to help people identify and develop unique personal potential, especially for young people, try using the test in conjunction with the Fantasticat idea, or similar ways to focus on individual potential, rather than the more narrow imposed measures found typically in young people's education systems. Many young people (and older people too..) mistakenly form a dim view of their capabilities and potential according to typical academic measures in schools, which remain largely oriented towards university and higher education expectations. The spectrum of human capability, and the potential to be valued and productive in life, are much broader than this, which are central aspects of multiple intelligence theory. Encouraging people to think beyond traditional academic measures of value and talent is a vital early step to enabling better self-esteem and bigger personal belief, confidence and aspiration.)
Is this test
scientifically validated or normed?..
This free Multiple Intelligences testing instrument has not
been scientifically validated or normed.
If your research or study requires the use of a
scientifically validated instrument then this instrument may not be suitable
for your work. However, where you have reason/flexibility to justify the use of
a free 'non-scientifically-validated' instrument, the following details about
this test (and its various versions) might be of help to you in deciding
whether to use it:
This instrument is a simple directly reflective assessment
tool which works in a single dimension. That is, the results are produced
directly from the inputs (the scored answers to the statement questions). There
are no complex computations or correlations or scaling. As such it less prone
to distortion or confusion than a more complicated testing methodology might
be, especially one involving convoluted formulae or scales on several
dimensions. The instrument in its various versions has been downloaded and used
tens of thousands of times by teachers, trainers, managers, academics, and
researchers all around the world since 2005, and (to my knowledge) has not
generated any complaint or criticism about its reliability and suitability for
purpose. Additionally, this webpage featuring the instrument download links has
been highly ranked (top five or so in Google's listings for keywords such as
'multiple intelligence tests') for several years and remains so, with zero
advertising and promotion, which is perhaps a virtual validation of sorts.
That said, I repeat, the instrument has not been
scientifically validated, and where you are definitely required to use an
instrument that has been scientifically validated or normed, then this free
tool is probably not the right one for you.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences - Principles and Interpretation
Howard Gardner asserts certain principles relating to his
multiple intelligence theory, which are explained and interpreted here, along
with implications and examples:
The multiple intelligences theory represented/represents a
definition of human nature, from a cognitive perspective, ie., how we perceive;
how we are aware of things.
This provides absolutely pivotal and inescapable indication
as to people's preferred learning styles, as well as their behavioural
and working styles, and their natural strengths. The types of
intelligence that a person possesses (Gardner suggests most of us are strong in
three types) indicates not only a persons capabilities, but also the manner or
method in which they prefer to learn and develop their strengths - and also to
develop their weaknesses.
So for example:
- A person who is strong musically and weak numerically
will be more likely to develop numerical and logical skills through music,
and not by being bombarded by numbers alone.
- A person who is weak spatially and strong numerically,
will be more likely to develop spatial ability if it is explained and
developed by using numbers and logic, and not by asking them to pack a
suitcase in front of an audience.
- A person who is weak bodily and physically and strong
numerically might best be encouraged to increase their physical activity
by encouraging them to learn about the mathematical and scientific
relationships between exercise, diet and health, rather than forcing them
to box or play rugby.
The pressure of possible failure and being forced to act and
think unnaturally, have a significant negative influence on learning
effectiveness. Happy relaxed people learn more readily than unhappy stressful
people.
A person's strength is also a learning channel. A person's
weakness is not a great learning channel. Simple huh?
When you add in what we know about personal belief and
confidence it all begins to make even more sense. Develop people through their
strengths and we not only stimulate their development - we also make them happy
(because everyone enjoys working in their strength areas) - and we also grow
their confidence and lift their belief (because they see they are doing well,
and they get told they are doing well too).
Developing a person's strengths will increase their response
to the learning experience, which helps them to develop their weaknesses as
well as their strengths.
Having illustrated that sensible use of a person's natural
strengths and types of intelligence is a good thing it's important to point out
that intelligence in itself is not a measure of good or bad, nor of happy or
sad.
The different intelligences - in Gardner's context (and
normally in most other interpretations and definitions of the term) - are not a
measure or reflection of emotion type. Intelligences are emotionally neutral.
No type of intelligence is in itself an expression of happiness or sadness; nor
an expression of feeling good or good or bad.
In the same way, the multiple intelligences are morally
neutral too. No type of intelligence is intrinsically right or wrong. In other
words intelligences are amoral, that is, neither moral nor immoral -
irrespective of a person's blend of intelligences.
Intelligences are separate to the good or bad purposes to
which people apply whatever intelligences they possess and use. Intelligences
are not in themselves good or bad.
The types of intelligences that a person possesses are in
themselves no indication or reflection - whatsoever - of whether the person is
good or bad; happy or sad, right or wrong.
People possess a set of intelligences - not just one type and
level of intelligence. This was a primary driver of Gardner's thinking; the
fact, or assertion, that intelligence is not a single scalable aspect of a
person's style and capability. Historically, and amazingly a perception that
still persists among many people and institutions and systems today,
intelligence was/is thought to be measurable on a single scale: a person could
be judged - supposedly - to have a high or low or average intelligence; or a
person would be considered 'intelligent or 'unintelligent'. Gardener has
demonstrated that this notion is ridiculous.
Intelligence is a mixture of several abilities (Gardner
explains seven intelligences, and alludes to others) that are all of great
value in life. But nobody's good at them all. In life we need people who
collectively are good at different things. A well-balanced world, and
well-balanced organisations and teams, are necessarily comprised of people who
possess different mixtures of intelligences. This gives the group a fuller
collective capability than a group of identically able specialists.
Incredibly many schools, teachers, and entire education
systems, persist in the view that a child is either intelligent or not, and
moreover that the 'intelligent' kids are 'good' and the 'unintelligent' kids
are 'bad'. Worse still many children grow up being told that they are not
intelligent and are therefore not of great worth; (the "you'll never
amount to anything" syndrome is everywhere).
Schools aren't the only organisations which, despite all that
Gardner has taught us, commonly still apply their own criteria (for example IQ
- 'Intelligence Quotient' - tests) to judge 'intelligence', and then label the
candidate either worthy or not. Adult people in work in organisations and
business are routinely judged by inappropriate criteria, and then written off
as being worthless by the employer. This type of faulty assessment is common
during recruitment, ongoing management, and matters of career development and
performance review.
The fact is that we are all intelligent in different ways.
The most brilliant scientific professor may well have
exceptional intelligence in a number of areas (probably Logical-Mathematical,
and one or two others) but will also be less able in other intelligences, and
could well be inept in some.
By the same token a person who struggles with language and numbers
might easily be an excellent sportsman, or musician, or artist.
A hopeless academic, who is tone-deaf and can't add up, could
easily possess remarkable interpersonal skills.
Many very successful business-people were judged to be
failures at school. They were of course judged according to a very narrow
definition of what constitutes intelligence.
Many very successful and fulfilled people in life were also
judged to be failures at school - brilliant scientists, leaders, writers,
entertainers, sports-people, soldiers, humanitarians, healers, religious and
political leaders - all sorts of happy, fulfilled remarkable people - they too
were judged according to a very narrow definition of what constitutes
intelligence.
Each one of us has a unique and different mix of intelligence
types, and commonly the people with the least 'conventional' intelligence (as
measured using old-fashioned narrow criteria), actually possess enormous talent
- often under-valued, unknown and under-developed.
Gardner, and others of course, pointed out that managing
people and organising a unique mixture of intelligence types is a hugely
challenging affair.
It starts however with the recognition that people have
abilities and potential that extend far beyond traditional methods of assessment,
and actually far beyond Gardner's seven intelligences, which after all are only
a starting point.
Gardner was one of the first to teach us that we should not
judge and develop people (especially children, young people, and people at the
beginnings of their careers) according to an arbitrary and narrow definition of
intelligence. We must instead rediscover and promote the vast range of
capabilities that have a value in life and organisations, and then set about
valuing people for who they are, what they can be, and helping them to grow and
fulfil their potential.
Using Multiple- Intelligences in the
Classroom:
Accepting Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has
several implications for teachers in terms of classroom instruction. The theory
states that all nine intelligences are needed to productively function in
society. Teachers, therefore, should think of all intelligences as equally
important. This is in great contrast to traditional education systems which
typically place a strong emphasis on the development and use of verbal and
mathematical intelligences. Thus, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences implies
that educators should recognize and teach to a broader range of talents and
skills. (Amy C. Brualdi: 1996). Rather
than functioning as a prescribed teaching method, curriculum, or technique, MI
theory provides a way of understanding intelligence, which teachers can use as
a guide for developing classroom activities that address multiple ways of
learning and knowing (Christison, 1999b). Teaching strategies informed by MI
theory can transfer some control from teacher to learners by giving students
choices in the ways they will learn and demonstrate their learning. By focusing
on problem-solving activities that draw on multiple intelligences, these
teaching strategies encourage learners to build on existing strengths and
knowledge to learn new content and skills (Kallenbach, 1999). It may also mean
the adult learners who have had little success in traditional classrooms where
only linguistic and mathematics skills are valued may experience more success
when other intelligences are tapped.
The MI theory and ELT: Language educators have long used the
concepts of four basic language skills: Listening Speaking
Reading Writing The four basic skills are related to each
other by two parameters: the mode of
communication: oral or written. the
direction of communication: receiving or producing the message. Specialists in
the field of ELT conducted a number of studies to explore implications of
various psychological theories in the educational field. Richards and Rodgers (2001) describe MI
theory as an approach that has been considered not only in general education
but also in language teaching.
“Application of MI in language teaching have been more recent, so it is
not surprising that MI theory lacks some of the basic elements that might link
it more directly to language education” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001)
Christison and Kennedy (1999) identified four ways in which the MI theory can
be used in the classroom as follows: 1- As a tool to help students develop a
better understanding and appreciation of their own strengths and their
preferred ways of learning. 2- As a tool to develop a better understanding of
learners’ intelligences. 3- As a guide to provide a greater variety of ways for
students to learn and to demonstrate their learning. 4- As a guide to develop
lesson plans that address the full range of learners needs.
With regard to the procedures of implementing MI theory in
ELT, Christison (1996) suggests the following steps: - Identifying the
activities frequently used in the class and categorize them to each particular
type of intelligence. - Making plans by selecting appropriate classroom
activities/ tasks. - Using ELT Multiple Intelligences weekly/ monthly checklist
to keep track of different activities and tasks conducted in the class. -
Expanding classroom activities for the neglected intelligences by way of
examining and analyzing the checklists for a period of time. (Khamis:
2004).
The Special Issue on Contemporary Issues in Social
Science ©
Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA
295
Furthermore, a
number of studies conducted in ELT field recommend the following techniques to
implement the MI theory in ELT field in the class:
Words Are Not Enough : Do not rely on the spoken word only.
Most activities for the younger learners should include movement and involve
the senses, colors and sounds (Bas 2008).
Play with the Language : Let the pupils talk to themselves.
Make them play with the language by making up rhymes, singing songs, telling
stories, etc. in the classroom (Scott and Ytreberg, 1990). Cooperation not Competition : The ideology of
the theory of Multiple Intelligences is based on "cooperation" not on
competition. So because of this reason, avoid prizes and awards in the class.
In this regard, according to Scott and Ytreberg (1990), make room for shared
experiences. Using Storybooks : The
educational value of using storybooks and storytelling has always been
undisputed throughout the world. EFL teachers of young learners are now more
familiar with an acquisition-based methodology, and recognise the true value of
using storybooks and storytelling as a way to create an acquisition rich
environment and ideal learning conditions which provide "comprehensible
input" or "language a little beyond child’s current level of
competence" (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2003; Krashen, 1981). Drawing and Colouring: Children can redraw
the characters; create maps showing where the story takes place, think of other
possible cover illustrations, and so on (Bas 2008).
Handicrafts : Craft activities are extremely useful as
learners can develop their listening and reading skills while following the
written or oral instructions. Teachers should always make the craft activity
themselves before doing it with their class. The finished work should be shown
to the learners to give them a general idea of what is expected from them.
Teachers should have the necessary materials with them so that they can do the
activity together with their students while also giving the instructions (Ersoz
et al. 2006: 42). Songs and Rhymes :
Very often, the rhymes developed in stories are to be found in various songs
and rhymes (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2003). Pupils can also compose songs
for the storybook(s) they have read and then sing the song they have composed
in the classroom. Vocabulary Activities:
Pupils can create their own "picture dictionary", based on words from
the stories they have read or heard. They can work individually or pool their
efforts to illustrate the words, either by drawing pictures or by cutting
pictures out of magazines or catalogues. They can choose whether to arrange the
words alphabetically or thematically (Brewster, Ellis and Girard, 2003). Drama: Pupils can act out the story in the
storybooks or song they have read or listened to. They can organise a place and
write, if they want, a different end for the story and then perform the story
in the classroom. The pupils can also compose a song for the story and sing it
in some parts of the drama if they wish (Bas 2008).
Games: Students may wish to play games purely for fun.
Teachers, however, need to make sure that whatever done in the classroom is for
teaching and learning purposes (Ersoz et al. 2006). Related Studies This part deals with studies that addressed
the effect of MI Strategies on English Language Arts. Chen (2004) examined the
use of multiple Intelligences (MI) theory in large computer assisted EFI
college classes in Taiwan to promote quality language teaching for large
classes. Therefore, the researcher combined MI theory and computer assisted
instruction in the intervention. The findings indicated that using the theory
of MI in multimodal classroom proved to be effective to promote individualized
and student-centered. It also helped students to achieve essential task of team
work especially for large EFL classes. They were highly motivated and showed a
great effective response. Hall Haley
(2004) investigated the effect of MI strategies in foreign and second language
instruction through his action research project. Twenty three foreign language
and English as second language teachers and 650 students from eight states and
three countries participated in the study to determine the impact of
implementing the theory of multiple Intelligences (MI) in daily classroom
activities. Results showed that the students in the experimental group
receiving MI-based instruction performed better than those in the control
group.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 3 No. 4 [Special
Issue – February 2013]
The students in the experimental classes were more
enthusiastic about learning and behavior problems were minimized. Teachers felt
that their classroom management skills were enhanced. One surprising result of
MI was the effective outcome. Most students expressed positive feelings about
teachers using a variety of instructional strategies as well as assessment practices
that address the multiple intelligences.
Hutchinson, McCavitt, Rude and Vallow (2002) conducted an action
research project to implement language arts program using multiple
intelligences to develop more positive attitudes towards grammar instruction
and to help promote the transfer of grammar skills to daily writing and
speaking tasks. The targeted population consisted of second, fourth and eighth
grade students in four different school setting. During the intervention
period, lessons and activities targeted the problem area of grammar education.
Analysis of probable cause data revealed a great deal of controversy on the
strategies of teaching grammar. Teachers are concerned over the lack of
transfer of grammar skills into content areas. Students struggle to see the
grammar instruction and its relationship to their daily communication skills.
As a result, incorporating multiple intelligences strategies to meet the needs
of different learning styles was the suggested solution. Post intervention data
indicated the transfer of grammar skills into daily tasks. Student’s attitudes
towards grammar instruction improved. These results were consistent in all
classroom studied. Shore (2001) examined
the use of multiple intelligences in George Washington University second
language classroom. The findings indicated that utilizing multiple
intelligences based lessons in English foreign language classroom has led to a
higher self-efficacy and therefore a greater achievement in English language
learning. Geimer, Getz, Pochert and pullam (2000) carried out an action
research project to determine the effect of incorporating multiple
intelligences strategies into the language arts curriculum. The targeted
students were in the second, third and fifth grades. It was discovered that
reading was the lowest academic area tested on the Illinois Goal Assessment
Program, (IGAP). Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences appeared as
a suggested solution. The selected intervention led to a comparison between
traditional methods of teaching and multiple intelligences strategies. The
intervention of multiple intelligences strategies showed an improvement in
English grammar and reading comprehension. Spelling results showed a slight
trend towards traditional instruction in three out of four targeted
classrooms. Snyder (1999) studied the
relationship between learning styles/multiple intelligences and academic
achievements. The sample consisted of high school students (128) American high
school taking a United States history (required) class at a large public high
school whose racial diversity was representative of that of the United States
population. Data collection techniques included observations, interviews with
students and teachers and assessments. She found that the females tended to be
stronger than the males in the intrapersonal, linguistic and musical
intelligences while the male students were more gifted than the females in the
bodily-kinesthetic, logical- mathematical and visual-spatial intelligences. Female students were often more eager work
alone on a project while male students preferred to work as groups. Conclusion
In the second language classroom it is possible to motivate learners by
activating multiple ways of meaning- making through the use of tasks relating
to the different intelligences. Providing a variety of language activities that
stimulate the different tools or intelligences proposed by Gardner (1999) makes
it possible to engage multiple memory pathways necessary to produce sustained
deep learning (Schumann 1997).
Christison (1999) indicates that teachers who use MI theory to inform
their curriculum development find that they gain a deeper understanding of
students' learning preferences and a greater appreciation of their strengths.
Students are likely to become more engaged in learning as they use learning
modes that match their intelligence strengths. In addition, students' regular
reflection on their learning broadens their definitions of effective and
acceptable teaching and learning practices. Students' increased engagement and
success in learning stimulates teachers to raise their expectations, initiating
a powerful expectation-response cycle that can lead to greater achievement
levels for all. Based on what has been
mentioned, the researchers concluded that the MI theory could have a vital role
in creating an attractive, encouraging and motivating atmosphere in ELT
class.
The Special Issue on Contemporary Issues in Social
Science ©
Centre for Promoting Ideas, USA
ELT teachers and specialists need to make use of the nine
different types of intelligence described by Gardner (1983, 1999) and design activities that take into account
the students’ attitudes, interests and levels in order to keep them engaged and
involved and motivate them to put more effort into learning. Recommendations of the Study Based on findings of the study, the
researchers recommend: - Spreading
awareness among EFL teachers on the MI theory and its implications in education
in general and in ELT field in particular. - Enriching the current English
Language Curricula with extra activities based on the MI theory. - Holding
training sessions for teachers on the MI theory and its educational
implications.
2.3 CHOMSKYAN
THEORY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING -LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR (UG)
Chomsky's research and influence on
linguistics changed and modernized the discipline. Chomsky argues that language acquisition is an innate structure, or function,
of the human brain.
Supporting factors of Chomskyan theory of language acquisition.
1.
There is an optimal learning age.
Between the ages 3 to 10 a child is the most likely to learn a language in its
entirety (whole) and grasp fluency. After this age, it is hard and even
considered impossible for the child to completely grasp the language.
2.The child does not need a trigger to begin language
acquisition, it happens on its own. The parent does not need to coax(persuade) the child to
speak, if it around language production, the child will work to produce that
language on its own.
3.It does not matter if a child is corrected,
they still grasp the language in the
same manner and speak the same way. During one stage, a child will make
things plural that are already plural.
4.Children go through stages of language acquisition in
which they learn certain parts of the language. They all go through these stages at
the same time, around the same age. A child in China, will follow the same
linguistic patterns of language acquisition as a child in the United States.
5.It
is with these observations, along with
knowledge about neurological structures that control linguistic communication
and interpretation, that Chomsky argues that language is innately organized.
Noam Chomsky believes that children are
born with an inherited ability to learn any human language. He claims that
certain linguistic structures which children use so accurately must be already
imprinted on the child’s mind. Chomsky believes that every child has a
‘language acquisition device’ or LAD which encodes the major principles of a
language and its grammatical structures into the child’s brain. Children have
then only to learn new vocabulary and apply the syntactic structures from the
LAD to form sentences. Chomsky points out that a child could not possibly
learn a language through imitation alone because the language spoken around
them is highly irregular – adult’s speech is often broken up and even sometimes
ungrammatical.
Chomsky’s theory applies to all
languages as they all contain nouns, verbs, consonants and vowels and children
appear to be ‘hard-wired’ to acquire the grammar. Every language is
extremely complex, often with subtle distinctions which even native speakers
are unaware of. However, all children, regardless of their intellectual
ability, become fluent in their native language within five or six years.
Evidence to support Chomsky’s theory
1.Children learning to speak never make
grammatical errors such as getting their subjects, verbs and objects in the
wrong order.
2.If an adult deliberately said a
grammatically incorrect sentence, the child would notice.
3.Children often say things that are
ungrammatical such as ‘mama ball’, which they cannot have learnt passively.
4.Mistakes such as ‘I drawed’ instead
of ‘I drew’ show they are not learning through imitation alone.
5.The sentence ‘colourless green ideas
sleep furiously’, shows that sentences can be grammatical without having any
meaning.
Evidence against Chomsky’s theory
Critics of Chomsky’s theory say that
although it is clear that children don’t learn language through imitation
alone, this does not prove that they must have an LAD – language learning
could merely be through general learning and understanding abilities and interactions
with other people.
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG)
Universal
grammar (UG) is
a theory in linguistics, usually credited to Noam Chomsky, proposing that the ability
to learn grammar is hard-wired into the
brain. The
theory suggests that linguistic ability manifests itself without being
taught and that there are properties
that all natural human languages share. Universal grammar, then,
consists of a set of unconscious
constraints(restrictions/rules) that let us decide whether a sentence is
correctly formed. This mental grammar is not necessarily the same for all
languages. But according to Chomskyian theorists, the process by which, in any
given language, certain sentences are perceived as correct while others are
not, is universal and independent of meaning.Thus, we immediately perceive that
a sentence such as “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.” is grammatically
correct English, even though it is nonsense.
In Chomsky’s view, the reason that children so easily master the complex
operations of language is that they have innate knowledge of certain principles
that guide them in developing the grammar of their language. Chomsky and other
generative linguists like him have shown that the 5000 to 6000 languages in the
world, despite their very different grammars, do share a set of syntactic rules
and principles. These linguists believe that this “universal grammar” is innate
and is embedded somewhere in the neuronal circuitry of the human brain. And
that would be why children can select, from all the sentences that come to their
minds, only those that conform to a “deep structure” encoded in the brain’s
circuits.
Observations that support the Chomskyian view of language
Presence of creole
languages : Pidgin languages are not
languages in the true sense, because they employ words so chaotically—there is
tremendous variation in word order, and very little grammar. the children
spontaneously introduced grammatical complexity into their speech, thus in the
space of one generation creating new languages, known as creoles.
GENERATIVE
GRAMMAR
Chomsky’s
theory is that language learning is facilitated by a predisposition(tendency)
that our brains have for certain structures of language. The term “generative
grammar” refers to the set of rules that enables us to understand sentences but
of which we are usually totally unaware.
Generative
Grammar posits a way to analyze sentences using an idea of Universal Grammar:
that human languages use specific structures to combine words into phrases,
which can be predicted by Generative Grammar. It relies on hierarchies of
phrases, stemming from the words of a sentence to small phrases to bigger and
bigger phrases until the statement is all tied together. These hierarchical
structures are shown in tree structure diagrams like this simple version:
The
syntax tree found in this section is a very simplified version of trees which
are now created using UG and GG, but it shows the use of the basic tenets
(views) of Universal Grammar. Universal Grammar is also extremely important
for Generative Grammar and therefore, also the Minimalist Program which was proposed by Noam Chomsky.
CRITICISMS OF CHOMSKY’S THEORIES
1.Geoffrey Sampson, Jeffrey Elman , James Hurford and Roediger argues that several of the basic
assumptions of Universal Grammar are unfounded.(unproven, groundless)
2.Morten Christiansen and Nick Chater
have argued that instead of an innate
Universal Grammar, they claim that, "apparently arbitrary(illogical, random)
aspects of linguistic structure may result.
3.Michael Ramscar has suggested that
how children correct grammar generalizations like goed to went through
repetitive failure. This implies
that word learning is a probabilistic, error-driven process, rather than a
process of fast mapping, as many nativists assume.
4 The Pirahã language is claimed to be a counter
example to the basic tenets of Universal Grammar, by Daniel Everett. This language is alleged to lack all
evidence for recursion, including embedded clauses, as well as quantifiers and color terms.
5.Michael Tomasello, a
developmental psychologist,says that
“universals in the grammatical structure of different languages have
come from more general processes and constraints (limitations) of human cognition, communication, and
vocal-auditory processing, operating during the conventionalization and
transmission of the particular grammatical constructions of particular
linguistic communities.”
6. According to evolutionary biologists
like, Philip Lieberman, for example, language is rather a learned skill based
on a “functional language system” distributed across numerous cortical and
subcortical structures.
7.According to Terrence Deacon, it is
the neural circuits of this system, and not some “language organ”, that
constitute a genetically predetermined set that limits the possible
characteristics of a language..
8.Generative semantics, developed by
linguist George Lakoff shows that semantics, context, and other factors can
come into play in the rules that govern syntax.
9.Even among authors like Steven Pinker, who embrace Chomsky’s
universal grammar, there are various conflicting positions, in particular about
how this universal grammar may have emerged.
2.4 LEARNER
FACTORS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (AGE, GENDER, INTELLIGENCE, APTITUDE,
ATTITUDE, COGNITIVE STYLE, MOTIVATION)
LEARNER FACTORS IN SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Differences among learners
No two individuals are alike.
There are probably no two individuals
The individuals may differ in
their mental physical abilities , or personality traits.
In the same way, no two children
are alike in their endowments and intellectual attainments.
Learner Factors
Learner factor is one of the major
factors or conditions prevailing in schools or classroom.
when we take a class, we can see the
hierarchical level of the students.
A class may range from
‘eager-beaver’, ‘goodie-good’, ‘book-worm’, ‘teacher- led’ students to the ‘I
dare you teach me anything’ one.
So we have to pay special attention
to each pupil in the class.
The problems that adversely affect
the teaching processes
Dislike of the teacher, classmates and
schools,
Devote too much time to sports and
games,
Lack of co ordination between
studies and life,
Lack of sympathetic understanding
of peers,
The adolescents want to be heroes,
They hold on the values,
They hope and like humour in
class.
They want a facilitator to make
them learn.
Factors Influencing Language Acquisition
- H.E. Palmer says,” Language teaching is
essentially a habit forming process, a
process during which we acquire
new habits.”
- The learner factors influencing language
acquisition may be broadly classified into:
i) Psychological,
ii) Physiological, and
iii)
Sociological.
Dependent Variables on language acquisition :
Age
Sex
Intelligence
Aptitude
Interest
Motivation
Personality Disposition
Cognitive Style
External Factors
There are other factors rather
than the learner factors which influence language acquisition are :
1)Infrastructural factors, and
2)Environmental factors
Infrastructural factors: This factor includes the quality of the institution, infrastructural facilities provided, strength, interest and vision, and culture of the institutions.
Availability of audio- visual aids
is a significant item of infrastructure, especially for the teaching of
English.
Infrastructural factors: Maximum use of radio, gramophone, tape- recorder, epidiascope, films, charts, pictures, real objects, models, black boards, overhead projector, slides, video and films, television sets, etc for the teaching of English will give children exposure
In an institution where
infrastructural facilities are available, the children will really be
motivated, provided the administration is efficient and keen to make use of
them.
Environmental factors: Acquisition of one’s native language is affected by physical environment, social environment, physical and social resources, sources of motivation etc.
It is the duty and responsibility of the
teacher to consider the number of students, their individual traits etc even
from the pre- planning stage.
The classroom environment must be relaxed and secure.
Only in a democratic environment,
the learners, especially those who are weak in the language, will be motivated
to use the language.
Schools should be equipped with
multi- media aids, language labs, teaching machines, etc.
There is marked relationship
between the child’s linguistic development and socio economic status.
Learning of vocabulary,
structures, complexity of sentences, etc were the areas where the relation was
highlighted.
***
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